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DevelOping
effeCtive COAlitiOnS:
An Eight Step Guide
221 Oak Street
Oakland, CA 94607
510.444.7738
fax 510.663.1280
www.preventioninstitute.org
DevelOping
effeCtive COAlitiOnS:
An Eight Step Guide
Larry Cohen, mSw
Nancy Baer, mSw
Pam Satterwhite, mA
Prevention Institute is a nonprofit, national center dedicated to improving community
health and well-being by building momentum for effective primary prevention. Primary prevention means taking action to build resilience and to prevent problems
before they occur. The Institute’s work is characterized by a strong commitment to
community participation and promotion of equitable health outcomes among all
social and economic groups. Since its founding in 1997, the organization has
focused on injury and violence prevention, traffic safety, health disparities, nutrition
and physical activity, and youth development.
This paper and related tools and materials are available at our website.
221 Oak Street
Oakland, CA 94607
510.444.7738
fax 510.663.1280
www.preventioninstitute.org
Developing effective coalitions: an eight step guide
Although the examples given in this paper are specific to injury prevention
coalitions, most can be applied to coalitions working on a variety of healthrelated issues. written in the format of eight specific steps, this paper attempts
to give structure to a process that is somewhat variable. Therefore, this paper is
to be used as a general guide. Each group will find ways of interpreting the
eight steps to best suit its own needs. The particular details of the solutions
arrived at by each coalition will be unique.
Developing Effective Coalitions: An Eight Step Guide was originally developed at the Contra Costa County (California) Health Services Department Prevention Program to assist public health programs in developing effective community coalitions for injury prevention. The ideas presented in this paper are
an outgrowth of a Special Project of Regional and National Significance
(SPRANS) grant awarded to the Contra Costa County Health Services Department by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services maternal and
Child Health Division. It was edited and printed by the Childrens Safety Network at the National Center for Education in maternal and Child Health. An
earlier version of the paper was also published in the Injury Awareness and
Prevention Centre News, Vol. 4, No. 10, Alberta, Canada, December 1991.
A version of this paper was published in mary Ellen wurzbachs Community
Health Education and Promotion: A Guide to Program Design and Evaluation
(2nd ed. Gaithersburg, md: Aspen Publishers; 2002:144-161).
Citation information:
Cohen L, Baer N, Satterwhite P. Developing effective coalitions: an eight step
guide. In: wurzbach mE, ed. Community Health Education & Promotion: A
Guide to Program Design and Evaluation. 2nd ed. Gaithersburg, md: Aspen
Publishers Inc; 2002:144-161.
Author Nancy Baer can be reached at nbaer@hsd.co.contra-costa.ca.us or
http://ccprevention.org
For further information or permission to reprint or distribute this paper, please
contact Prevention Institute.
221 Oak Street
Oakland, CA 94607
510.444.7738
fax 510.663.1280
www.preventioninstitute.org
Health professionals attend numerous meetings and sometimes assume that
they understand everything it takes for working groups to succeed. Often,
however, groups fail or, perhaps worse, flounder.To avoid this type of experience, which only erodes faith in collaborative efforts, people need to
sharpen the skills that are necessary to build and maintain coalitions.This
paper contributes to the discussion of group processes by offering an eight
step guide to building effective coalitions.This paper is written from the
perspective of an organization considering initiating and leading a coalition
but can be helpful to anyone eager to strengthen a coalition in which he
or she participates.
WHat is a coalition?
A coalition is a union of people and organizations working to influence
outcomes on a specific problem. Coalitions are useful for accomplishing a
broad range of goals that reach beyond the capacity of any individual member organization.These goals range from information sharing to coordination of services, from community education to advocacy for major environmental or policy (regulatory) changes.In this Eight Step Guide,the word
coalition is used in a generic sense to represent a broad variety of organizational forms that might be adopted.The approach outlined in this paper
is intended to be used by any collaborative group seeking to influence outcomes or goals, or by anyone participating in an ongoing set of meetings.
A coalition can be an effective means of achieving a coordinated approach
to injury prevention. For example,many agencies that focused primarily on
providing direct services after the occurrence of violent incidents wanted
to join together to develop effective ways to prevent violence.As a result,
government and agency leaders established the Violence Prevention Coalition1
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 1 Prevention Institute
DevelOping
effeCtive COAlitiOnS:
An Eight Step Guide
The opportunity to interact
with people from related
programs strengthens my
. Now
I know who to refer my
clients to and where to go
for advice when I need it.
Without the coordination
that this coalition provides,
we never would have
accomplished such a
broad policy objective.
Another meeting?
Id like to attend but I
have real work to do.
This coalition used to be
worthwhile, but now I find
it a waste of time.
(VPC), a network of county organizations and community agencies dedicated to the prevention of abuse and violence.
The Injury Prevention Coalition1 (IPC) was formed a few years later by
groups focusing on other injury issues (e.g., crib death, drowning, car crashes).These groups wanted to develop a broad campaign emphasizing that
injuries are no accident.
Although coalition building has become a popular approach, the concept
of coalition building is not new. In 1840, Alexis de Tocqueville, the first
noted international researcher on American society, remarked that
…Americans are a peculiar people…If, in a local community, a citizen
becomes aware of a human need that is not met, he thereupon discusses the
situation with his neighbors. Suddenly a committee comes into existence.
The committee thereupon begins to operate on behalf of the need, and a
new community function is established. It is like watching a miracle.2
cHaracteristics of collaborative organizations
Following are working definitions of various types of group processes.
ADVISORY COMMITTEES generally respond to organizations or programs by providing suggestions and technical assistance.
COMMISSIONS usually consist of citizens appointed by official bodies.
CONSORTIA AND ALLIANCES tend to be semi-official, membership
organizations. They typically have broad policy-oriented goals and may
span large geographic areas.They usually consist of organizations and coalitions as opposed to individuals.
NETWORKS are generally loose-knit groups formed primarily for the
purpose of resource and information sharing.
TASK FORCES most often come together to accomplish a specific series
of activities, often at the request of an overseeing body.
terms often useD WitH respect to coalitions
CHAIRPERSON: The chairperson has the primary responsibility as
spokesperson for the coalition.He or she may sign letters,testify in court, etc.
on behalf of the coalition.The chairperson does not necessarily have to be
from the lead agency. Frequently, the chairperson also acts as the facilitator.
FACILITATOR: The facilitator is responsible for running the coalitions
meetings. This person should be knowledgeable in group dynamics and
comfortable with the task of including disparate members in group interactions, fostering group discussion,and resolving disagreements within the
group.As with the chairperson, the facilitator does not necessarily have to
be from the lead agency.
Many organizers ask
individuals to leave their
bias at the door. Avoid this
temptation. Its more
realistic to encourage
them to bring their own
perspectives in and to
shape a coalition that
responds to the needs
and objectives of its
members.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 2 www.preventioninstitute.org
INDIVIDUAL MEMBER: Individual members are those people who do
not represent a specific organization within the coalition.They often join
the coalition for reasons of personal or professional interest in the issue.
LEAD AGENCY:The lead agency convenes the coalition and assumes significant responsibility for its operation. However, the lead agency does not
control the coalition.The lead agency should recognize the amount of
resources necessary to initiate and maintain the coalition and the importance of respecting the differences between the coalitions and the lead
agencys perspectives.
MEMBER ORGANIZATION: Member organizations are those organizations that participate in coalition activities and send a designated representative to coalition meetings.In some coalitions,member is an official designation; some organizations may choose to become official members and
others may participate on an ad hoc or informal basis.
REPRESENTATIVES: Representatives are staff from member organizations who are selected to participate in the activities and meetings of the
coalition. Ideally, these people have an interest in the problem, and their
activities on the coalition comprise part of their regular job responsibilities.
STAFFING: Staffing refers to the support functions necessary to make the
coalition work (e.g., planning meetings, preparing agendas). Staffing is typically a responsibility of the lead agency.
STEERING COMMITTEE: A steering committee is a small subgroup of
the coalition that takes primary responsibility for the coalitions overall
direction.Typically, the steering committee will include the coalition chairperson and a representative from the lead agency.The steering committee
may also include subcommittee chairpersons and representatives from other
organizations that have a major commitment to the coalitions objectives.
Steering committees sometimes plan meetings and may provide decision
making between regular coalition meetings.
TURF: Turf refers to the territory an organization feels is rightly its own.
Areas of turf include geographic areas, specific issues, and funding sources.
Frequently,turf battlesdisagreements over who will work in a particular region or who will apply for a particular grantarise in coalitions.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 3 Prevention Institute
Coalitions are not
appropriate for every
situation. They are only
one of a variety of tools.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 4 www.preventioninstitute.org
aDvantages of coalitions
Coalitions offer numerous potential advantages over working independently.
Coalitions can conserve resources.
For example, the IPC invited teachers and Parent Teacher Association
(PTA) members to become involved in the coalitions educational effort to
promote a new law requiring children to wear bike helmets when riding
to school.The PTA and teachers then educated students and parents on the
proposed law while doing their regular work, thereby eliminating the need
for other IPC members to visit schools.
Coalitions can achieve more widespread reach within a community
than any single organization could attain.
For example,when theVPC held a community resource fair,they were able
to invite two thousand interested community members just by combining
their mailing lists.
Coalitions can accomplish objectives beyond the scope of any single
organization.
For example,the IPC was able to lobby successfully for child passenger safety legislation that no single program had the time, geographic scope, or
mandate to pursue.
Coalitions have greater credibility than individual organizations.
The broader purpose and breadth of coalitions give them more credibility
than individual organizations. In addition, coalitions reduce suspicion of
self-interest. For example, the IPC wrote a letter to the editor of a local
newspaper asking him to ensure that all bicycle-related photos printed in
the newspaper include bicyclists who were wearing helmets. Seeing the
breadth of groups on the letterhead, the editor could not dismiss the letter
as one sent from a special interest group.
Coalitions provide a forum for sharing information.
For example, at an IPC meeting, each member announced upcoming
events,and then those members who had attended the National Safe Kids
conference gave a report. Only two members of the coalition could afford
to attend the conference, but by reporting back, all members were
informed about the conference proceedings.
Coalitions provide a range of advice and perspectives to the lead
agency.
For example, after a suicide attempt by a local high school youth, the lead
agency convenedVPC members for advice on the best way for the Health
Department to respond to the concerns of principals and teachers in that
school district.
Coalitions foster personal satisfaction and help members to
understand their jobs in a broader perspective.
For example, an IPC member who was a traffic engineer was able to use
his graphic art skills to develop an educational manual for the coalition. In
addition, his involvement in the coalition allowed him to see how his work
as an engineer impacted childhood and pedestrian safety.
Coalitions can foster cooperation between grassroots organizations,
community members, and/or diverse sectors of a large organization.
Coalitions build trust and consensus between people and organizations that
have similar responsibilities and concerns within a community. For example,threeVPC agencies that had been struggling with turf issues over working in the local high schools decided to combine their efforts by collaborating on a joint education project.
It is important to note that a coalition is not appropriate in every situation
and is only one of a variety of effective tools for accomplishing organizational goals.A lead agency should consider carefully the responsibilities of
developing and coordinating a coalition.The success of a coalition is usually uncertain.In addition, lead agencies tend to underestimate the requirements needed to keep coalitions functioning well, especially the commitment of substantial staffing resources. Coalitions also require significant
commitment from the members, who frequently must weigh coalition
membership against other important work. Potential results need to be
measured against their costs, keeping in mind that results of coalition efforts
often diverge from the initial expectations of the organizations that created
the coalition. Furthermore, some tasks are inappropriate for coalitions
because they may require quick responses that are unwieldy for coalitions
or an intensity of focus that is difficult to attain with a large group.
Before initiating a coalition, it is important to determine if related groups
already exist within the community.There are times when it will be far
more effective to participate in an already existing group with compatible
goals than to form a new coalition.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 5 Prevention Institute
3TIP: Group Definition
People and organizations often
define terms differently. It is
important to define clearly the
type of group that will be set up,
including its mission, membership,
and structure, and to make sure
that all participants understand
and agree with this definition.
EIGHT STEPS To BUILDING
AN EFFECTIVE CoALITIoN
STEP 1
Analyze the programs objectives
and determine whether to form
a coalition.
STEP 2
Recruit the right people.
STEP 3
Devise a set of preliminary
objectives and activities.
STEP 4
Convene the coalition.
STEP 5
Anticipate the necessary resources.
STEP 6
Define elements of a successful
coalition structure.
STEP 7
Maintain coalition vitality.
STEP 8
Make improvements through
evaluation.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 6 www.preventioninstitute.org
tHe eigHt steps
step 1
analyze tHe programs objectives anD Determine
WHetHer to form a coalition
Three different situations may cause an organization to consider whether
or not to form a coalition: 1) the organization recognizes a community
need or responds to community leaders requests to facilitate an effort; 2)
the organization recognizes that a coalition will help it fulfill its own goals;
or 3) the process of building a coalition is required, for example, by a grant
mandate or as the outcome of a conference. Recently, many grants have
required organizations to establish coalitions.Consequently,the initiation of
a coalition may be in response to the grantor rather than as a result of recognizing that it is the best solution to a problem.Therefore, the organizations objectives may be based on an assessment of data, may stem from an
existing programmatic emphasis, or may be set by a funding mandate.
Sometimes a coalition is established by spontaneous combustion based on
the joint decision of a group of individuals and organizations, without a
lead agency.These coalition organizers should approach the eight steps to
effective coalition building as though they share the responsibility as the
lead agency. Between them, they must achieve the responsibilities that are
delineated throughout this paper for the lead agency. Sometimes these
shared efforts can capitalize on the energy of their beginnings and can
achieve remarkable results.
A potential lead agency must assess its credibility in and capacity for providing neutral facilitation. On some issues, the organization may have the
credibility and resources to provide the lead.In other situations, history,turf
issues, or lack of resources might prevent the achievement of a cohesive
effort. In these cases, the group should consider designating a different lead
agency, if a coalition is still going to be developed.
When deciding whether or not to form a coalition, first consider whether
or not a coalition is the appropriate tool to serve the organizations needs.
Then consider the resources needed from the lead agency and from coalition members. Finally, consider whether or not coalition efforts represent
the best use of these resources.There are times you may want to join an
existing coalition with related objectives instead of creating your own.To
answer these questions, it is important to examine the objectives and to
determine specific strategies that could help achieve those objectives.
To determine whether or not to form a coalition, the following steps
should be undertaken:
A. Clarify the objectives and appropriate activities.
One tool that is useful for planning objectives is the Spectrum of Prevention (see box below), which describes six types of interventions that can be
used. Each part of the Spectrum depends on the others to work best, and
generally, coalitions that aim to accomplish a combination of the Spectrums strategies are most effective. By grouping these separate approaches
together, a preventive health program builds on the strengths of each and
promotes permanent, effective change. For example, environmental
changes, which are key in injury prevention, generally result from changing organizational practices or advocating policy and legislation.As a specific example, an educational program aimed at decreasing bicycle-related
injuries will be enhanced if a local ordinance requires bicyclists to wear helmets and a civic program is implemented to change the environment by
developing off-street bicycle paths. Often policy advocacy requires the
resources of several organizations within a community and may necessitate
the formation of a coalition.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 7 Prevention Institute
THE SPECTRUm oF PREVENTIoN3
Influencing Policy & Legislation
Changing Organizational Practices
Fostering Coalitions & Networks
Educating Providers
Promoting Community Education
Strengthening Individual Knowledge & Skills
The Spectrum of Prevention
Take a broad, creative look at activities that can accomplish the objectives.
In many prevention programs, efforts center primarily on education.Yet
individual and community education is not enough. For example, a child
can drown in minutes, even with an attentive caretaker nearby who knows
that water is dangerous.A fence around a pool, however, is an effective safeguard that helps prevent such tragedies by physically separating the child
from the danger.In this case,promoting an ordinance requiring proper pool
fencing will be a more effective method of reducing childhood drownings
than funneling all of the coalitions resources into individual and community education.
Critical questions to consider are the breadth of what the group may
accomplish and the scope of the coalitions activities. For example, should
the effort focus on car seats or on reducing all childhood injuries? Will the
coalition focus on a specific injury (e.g., sports-related injuries) or on a
crosscutting issue (e.g., improvement of data access)? The direction the
coalition will ultimately take depends on the vision and interests of the lead
agency and on the likelihood of success in meeting the identified objectives. The coalitions direction will also depend on the composition and
interests of the membership (see Step 3). For each approach, it will be
important to have at least a general understanding of the roles of particular
members in accomplishing the objectives. Different members may be better suited to different activities.
B. Assess community strengths and weaknesses.
How do the proposed approaches of the coalition fit into the context of
the communitys strengths and weaknesses? Look at the community in
terms of potential barriers and supports.Is there a history of success or failure in dealing with similar problems in the community? Are there organizations that have similar objectives? Are there organizations (or even coalitions) that deal with closely related issues? Are there individuals or organizations that could be enlisted to provide support or overcome potential
barriers? Are there organizations from other geographic regions with
whom collaboration could occur? Are there individuals and organizations
that may be opposed to the objectives or may view the coalition as competition for scarce resources?
C. Determine the costs and benefits to the lead agency.
How great will the resource drain be? How much will the coalitions
results coincide with the organizations overall goals?What will a coalition
provide to the lead agencys program? Determine if adequate resources are
available. If not, the objectives must be revised, or perhaps the coalition
should not be created.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 8 www.preventioninstitute.org
The main factor in
unproductive business
meetings is one of the
most fundamental:
having the wrong
people present.4
LyNN oPPENHEIm
wharton Center for Applied Research,
as quoted in the New York Times
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 9 Prevention Institute
step 2
recruit tHe rigHt people
Membership type
Determine the membership type based on the coalitions goals.Most coalitions should have diverse membership. Of course,a coalition aimed at providing citizen input might consist only of citizens, a coalition designed to
ensure that government departments coordinate their efforts effectively
might consist only of those departments,and a coalition aimed at eliminating duplication of services might only include the service providers. Coalitions with less diverse membership may communicate and work more
quickly because members objectives may be more alike.These coalitions,
however, may be weaker in their ability to comprehend other factors that
contribute to the problem that lay beyond the purview of their member
organizations.
Member organizations
Start by identifying organizations that already work on the identified issue
and look broadly for other organizations that should be involved. Consider those who have influence, those who will be supportive,and even those
who may put obstacles in the coalitions path.Are there important citizen
or client groups that should be included? For example, theVPC became
far more effective in elevating the importance of violence prevention in
their community when the Parents of Murdered Children group began
to participate in the coalition.
individual members
Many coalitions welcome individuals in their membership. Individual
members may be community members, community leaders,or people who
have directly experienced the problem. Unless there is a reason not to, it is
a good idea to include individuals who are not affiliated with an organization, because they can perform functions that other coalition members may
not easily be able to perform. For example, individual members may be
perceived by the media as having less of a vested interest and therefore more
credibility. In addition, individual members can provide advice and outreach from a different,and perhaps more personal, perspective.As a specific example, the IPC members who had been injured were the best spokespeople for legislative hearings and meetings with the press.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 10 www.preventioninstitute.org
Competitors and adversaries
Decide whether to include or exclude potential competitors and adversaries, based on the sincerity of their commitment to the coalitions goals
and whether they will be more of an impediment to the coalition if included or excluded. For example, theVPC did not allow a gun manufacturing
company to join its coalition because the work of the company directly
opposed the objectives of the coalition to reduce firearm use.However, the
VPC did allow a toy company to join the coalition in the hopes that the
coalitions efforts would encourage the company to produce alternatives to
toy guns.
Organization representatives
Having identified key organizations, consider who will best represent each
organization on the coalition.Agency directors are often more effective at
making policy decisions and establishing credibility as coalition representatives.They often have broader experience on certain coalition issues and a
wider network of connections in the community. On the other hand, line
staff are frequently more committed, enthusiastic, and available than top
leaders and are often more in touch with the issues related to hands-on
service delivery.It is important for agency directors to appoint these staff to
represent their organization. In so doing, the directors validate the time
employees spend doing coalition work. In addition, the directors will be
more likely to provide latitude to their representatives when decisions need
to be made by the coalition on the spot.
Organization representatives with strong skills or interests should be
recruited to serve on the coalition steering committee, asked to chair or
facilitate, or given other positions of responsibility. In situations in which
only top organizational leaders have the clout to play an effective role, recognize that their attendance may be irregular, but that the coalition is
receiving the benefit of key individuals.
Often, participation from both top leadership and line staff is essential to
achieving coalition goals. For example, a VPC member who directed the
countys probation department had the clout to convene the other top
leaders, such as the sheriff and the chief of police, to make decisions about
procedures for child abuse cases. Counselors, who were more familiar with
actual cases, also met regularly to identify problems of coordination
between departments, discuss individual problems, conduct training, and
propose solutions to the coalitions leadership.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 11 Prevention Institute
Membership size
Consider the desired number of organizations and the diversity of membership when selecting organizations to approach about joining the coalition.A coalition developing a curriculum on boating safety may need fewer
members than a coalition that is attempting to change community pool
fencing ordinances, because writing curriculum is a less complex task than
influencing policy.
step 3
Devise a set of preliminary objectives anD activities
for tHe coalition
In step one, the lead agencys objectives were examined. It is important to
meld these objectives with the objectives of other members.Defining coalition goals and objectives and how to implement them requires the inclusion of all coalition members in discussions.Therefore, the lead agency will
need to broaden and modify its objectives.A written mission statement can
be a useful tool to achieve clarity about coalition goals. However, it is
important to avoid getting too bogged down in the semantics of the statement early in the coalitions life.
Melding the objectives of the member groups
Some coalitions arise with a number of commonalities among the member
organizations, minimizing the need to convince members of the benefits of
the coalition. More typically, however, each member organization has its
own goals, which may vary widely from those of other member organizations. It is important to create options that mutually satisfy the lead organizations objectives as well as the goals of other coalition members,to propose
mutually productive activities,and to structure both objectives and activities
in such a way that other coalition members feel included in the decision
making process.The coalitions original objectives must be kept in the forefront of all planning at the same time that a balance is struck between those
objectives and the concerns and interests of each member group.
Until trust is established, avoid issues and activities that will set up turf
struggles or exacerbate existing turf issues between coalition member agencies. More importantly, the coalition should be careful not to become
another competitor to its member agencies, but rather should play a complementary role. For example,the IPC did not publish a newsletter because
doing so might reduce the subscriptions to the newsletter of the SafeToys
Association. Instead, IPC members wrote a monthly column in the Safe
Toys newsletter and encouraged people interested in the IPC to subscribe.
3TIP: Turf Struggles6
It is not always possible to avoid turf
struggles. However, a coalition
should try not to exacerbate these
areas of overlap and competition.
At times, a coalition can be a
constructive meeting place for
openly discussing problem areas,
establishing ground rules, and
resolving turf issues. Formal and
informal opportunities to understand
the differences in agency history,
mandates, and funding issues may
soften turf struggles.
3TIP: Coalition Size
A group larger than 12-18 people
requires more resources and will
sometimes take longer to develop
group identity and common
purpose. Some coalition experts
recommend calculating size based
on organizational purpose.
William Riker has introduced the
notion of the minimum winning
coalition in which participants
create coalitions just as large as
they believe will ensure winning
and no larger.5 At times it is
preferable to bring together a
narrow group with more closely
defined interests (e.g., service
providers). This group would
accomplish objectives quickly.
Frequently, this type of beginning
leads to broadening the coalition at
a later and more appropriate time.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 12 www.preventioninstitute.org
Coalition goals and objectives
While dealing with long-term objectives over time, set some objectives that
can be addressed by all member organizations more immediately. However,
always keep the long-range objectives clearly in mind. Far too often…the
effectiveness of a coalition decreases as the breadth of its agenda increases.7
In some cases, broad goals can be accomplished best by joint activities with
other coalitions,rather than by a single coalition. For example, the IPC, the
VPC, and the Alcoholism Prevention Forum joined together on a media
campaign focusing on the risks associated with alcohol abuse.While regular meetings of all of the coalitions in one broad group would prove
unwieldy to the members, it was in everyones interest to work cooperatively on a specific issue.At times, coalitions find it valuable to send representatives to one anothers meetings and to have reports regularly included
on one anothers agendas.
Coalition activities
Develop a variety of well-defined activities that meet the needs of participating organizations and make use of the skills of coalition representatives.
Identify some activities that will result in short-term successes,such as a press
release announcing the organizations formation and purpose, or a report
outlining the groups initial findings. These products increase members
motivation and pride while enhancing coalition visibility and credibility.
Initial successes can be achieved without massive effort. For example, information sharing is typically part of initial coalition meetings as members get
to know one another.TheVPC recorded descriptions of the types of services provided by each of its member organizations and distributed this
information in an attractive chart format, thereby fulfilling the need for a
simple inventory of member services.
There can be advantages in dealing with a myriad of issues since approaches to different types of injuries may be related to one another. Regardless
of the breadth of issues, keep the original coalition objectives foremost in
all planning, lest members lose interest or enthusiasm.
Bear in mind that what keeps a coalition going is the commitment of the
individual representatives and the support of the organizations they represent. Generally, the more directly coalition activities relate to the specific
objectives of the participating organizations,and the more each member is
able to enjoy and be proud of their individual participation and contributions, the more the coalition will accomplish and the more it will flourish.
In some cases, coalition objectives or activities may be at cross-purposes
with those of an individual organization. Based on these cross-purposes,
one or another organization may elect not to participate in the coalition.It
is important to find out why groups decline to participate.When forced to
3TIP: well-Chosen Activities
Select activities that members will
experience as successfulactivities
in which they have something unique
to contribute. Make objectives
compelling. Be sensitive to the fact
that coalition work is not the main
job of coalition members and keep
assignments simple and achievable.
Keep reminding people that it is
okay to say no or to set limits.
choose between groups, encourage the coalition to select criteria that put
the needs of the communitys citizens first.This is appropriate at all times
and cannot fail to win respect.
step 4
convene tHe coalition
There are three ways that coalitions are typically initiated: 1) through a
meeting; 2) at a conference; or 3) at a workshop.
To convene the coalition for the first time, hold a meeting of potential
members.At this meeting, the lead agency should clearly define the purpose of the coalition, and members should specify their expectations. In
addition, the invited organizations and their representatives should have a
chance to introduce themselves, state what they see as their role in the
coalition, and consider what their organizations interest is in participating
in the coalition. Potential members should be given an opportunity to
define what they perceive as the purpose and goals of the coalition and to
recommend others who they think should be involved.
To succeed, the lead agency should arrive at the first meeting with a strong
proposal for the coalitions structure, including its mission and membership.
Although many components of a coalitions structure are negotiable,the lead
agency should be clear about the particular elements that are not.While
being specific about how the coalition will operate, the lead agency should
also explain where there is room for modification based on member input.
Furthermore, the lead agency should ensure that all participating organizations understand and agree with the definition they give to the coalition.
Of course, not all potential members will find the coalition worth their
time and energy.Two determinants will be the specific activities the coalition chooses to undertake and the worth of the coalition as seen by the
management of the member organizations.Therefore, once coalition activities are clarified, it is important to reconsider membership. Any welldesigned coalition will be broad-based and may have different organizations
participating in different activities. Nevertheless, the decision by an organization not to participate in the coalition may be an appropriate one from
its perspective.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 13 Prevention Institute
3TIP: Growing your Group
The notion that members of a
coalition will self-select at a
conference or workshop and form
a viable coalition is wishful thinking.
Workshops or conferences can
sometimes be used to initiate a
coalition. However, they will require
more resources than a single
meeting and will not produce the
carefully selected membership that
a planned meeting will. As a result,
the likelihood that members will
participate on a consistent basis
is slim.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 14 www.preventioninstitute.org
step 5
anticipate tHe necessary resources
Effective coalitions generally require minimal financial outlay for materials
and supplies, but require substantial time commitments from people.The
ability to allocate considerable staffing is one of the most important considerations for organizations providing coalition leadership.
Occasionally, the coalition can call upon its members for operational tasks.
However,the lead agency generally provides the majority of staff time.Lead
agencies may benefit by reallocating some of their staff time to coordinate
coalition activities, because their investment is often repaid by the successes achieved by the coalition.
While staff time may be provided by many coalition members, it is important for the lead agency not to be too optimistic and to allocate a significant amount of its own staff time to the coalition. Preparation for coalition
meetings requires substantial staff effort.To assure meeting attendance and
success, extensive work must be done prior to the meetings, including
agenda preparation and written and phone contact with the representatives.
A coalition succeeds when staffing is adequate to handle the detail work.
It is important to recognize that coalition members time is the most valuable contribution they can make.When this resource is discussed during
coalition meetings, commitments are sometimes made in response to the
enthusiasm of the meeting and seem less realistic when members return to
their regular jobs.At other times, coalition members will fulfill their commitments but may resent the extra work. Both situations can have a longterm, destructive impact on the coalition. Periodic discussions about
resources, support, and time limitations of the members can minimize
potential problems. Also, it is important to re-evaluate the objectives and
activities in order to monitor which are achievable given the coalitions
staffing and resources, which may change over time.The more the coalitions objectives complement those of its member agencies, the less member time will seem like extra work.
staff Demands on the lead agency
The lead agency should expect extensive staff time demands in the following seven areas:
1. CLERICAL: Mailings, typing minutes and agendas, making reminder
calls, photocopying
2. MEETINGS: Planning agendas, taking minutes, locating and preparing
the meeting site, planning facilitation, coordinating with the coalitions
chairperson or steering committee, providing refreshments
3TIP: Division of Labor
Estimate how much of the footwork
will be the responsibility of the
lead agency and how much to
realistically expect of members.
Anticipate that members will not
always fulfill their commitments.
Be appreciative of what is done,
rather than moralistic when
people cannot accomplish
everything they planned.
3TIP: Resource Calculation
When calculating the needed
resources, estimate the number of
hours per month required for each
of these categories, and then
multiply this total by two.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 15 Prevention Institute
3. MEMBERSHIP: Recruitment, orientation, ongoing contact, support,
and encouragement
4. RESEARCH AND FACT GATHERING: Data collection, process and
outcome evaluation
5. PUBLIC RELATIONS AND PUBLIC INFORMATION: Development of materials, press releases, linkages to local reporters
6. COORDINATION OF ACTIVITIES: Special coalition events, media
campaigns, joint projects
7. FUNDRAISING: Raising money and other resources
financial resources
Financial concerns can be distracting, particularly to a new coalition.
Although it may be costly to establish and maintain a coalition, particularly in terms of staff time, the cost of achieving overall results should be less
than if the lead agency attempted to accomplish these same objectives on
its own. Frequently, coalitions spend thousands of dollars of personnel time
in order to raise much smaller amounts of cash.While raising small amounts
of money may provide members with a sense of accomplishment, these
efforts must be minimized. Furthermore, careful attention should be paid
to minimizing financial obligations for members.For example,a conference
held at a community site with volunteer speakers may be planned for a
nominal cost.Additionally, five possible sources for supplementing coalition
resources, whether in the form of cash or donated services, are the media,
foundations, local service clubs, students and trainees,and volunteers.
MEDIA can be encouraged to provide information that reinforces coalition
efforts.They also may be interested in printing and disseminating information on the materials produced by the coalition.A visibility campaign,using
mass media (television,radio, newspaper) will help raise the coalitions profile and may help to promote the coalition to funders.
FOUNDATIONS usually give small amounts of seed money to coalitions
because they value the opportunity to encourage cooperation and see it as
a way to provide broad services at minimal cost.
LOCAL SERVICE CLUBS such as Soroptimists or Rotary like to contribute to broad-based community efforts.Also, they frequently have established links with some coalition members.
STUDENTS AND TRAINEES frequently seek skills in coalition building
and may be interested in a trainee or internship program. Linkage with a
university community college can be a cost-effective way to increase staffing.
VOLUNTEERS are often pleased to contribute many resources and are
anxious to learn the skills related to coalition building that will serve their
own charitable impulses and careers.
step 6
Define elements of a successful coalition structure
The technical details of the coalitions structure are vital to achieving success. As with other coalition considerations, it is important to have welldeveloped ideas as well as the flexibility to allow for input and modifications by coalition members. Structural issues to consider are:a) coalition life
expectancy; b) meeting location, frequency, and length; c) membership
parameters; d) decision making processes; e) meeting agendas;and f) participation between meetings. There are no set rules about how a coalition
should be structured, but each of these six elements should be focused on
thoughtfully.
A. Coalition life expectancy
The coalitions goals should dictate its longevity.Although an open-ended
time frame may seem attractive to the lead agency, member organizations
and their representatives often prefer coalitions with a specific life
expectancy.For example,VPC members decided to meet every two months
for two years to establish conflict resolution programs in all local school districts.The disadvantage of this approach is that some members may become
dissatisfied if a decision is made to maintain the coalition after the specified
time. Generally, it is best to meet two or three times to clarify potential
coalition objectives,and then determine duration.
B. Meeting location, frequency, and length
Attention to meeting location(s), time of day, comfort of the site (size of
room, lighting, chairs, ventilation, etc.),and regularly scheduled dates can all
contribute to enhanced member participation. In addition, a time for
refreshments prior to meetings, during breaks, or after the meeting provides
an opportunity for less formal conversation and builds group cohesion and
morale.
To promote an atmosphere of equal contribution, consider holding coalition meetings on neutral territory, such as the local library. Rotating the
meeting to different members sites can add interest, although at times
meetings are delayed when people get lost or confused by varying locations.
Other than an ad hoc emergency situationsuch as a legislative deadline
coalitions should not meet more frequently than once a month. In some
cases, attendance levels are more likely to be maintained by meeting once
every two months.When coalitions meet less frequently,members are generally more willing to participate in subcommittees between general meetings. However, coalition commitment and continuity can suffer when
meetings occur less than once per month.Groups separated by distance will
meet less frequently (e.g., quarterly). If some members travel a great disDEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 16 www.preventioninstitute.org
3TIP: Location & Schedule
Poll members to see which times
and locations present the least
conflict in terms of both personal
and work commitments. Avoid
meeting times that cause members
to face traffic jams and sites where
parking is difficult. The next time
they receive a notice about a
coalition meeting, they should not
think of the traffic as much as the
content of the meeting.
tance,longer but less frequent meetings make the travel time a better investment. Certain kinds of groups meet annually with subcommittee meetings
and conference calls in between, but their effectiveness can suffer unless
members are highly motivated.
Remember, peoples time is valuable: generally, 1.5 – 2 hour meetings are
best. Do not permit coalition meetings to run over the planned time.
C. Membership parameters
As Step 2 points out, membership is critical. Coalition members must
decide to what extent new members will be included. How defined or
open should the membership be? In many cases,a compromise solution in
which certain people are recruited and encouraged, but no one is excluded, is best. Open meetings lead to greater variability in attendance and a
potentially unwieldy group, but this is generally of less concern than the
danger of excluding, or creating the impression of excluding, important
supporters. For example, conference organizers who invite only certain,
specially selected people to attend may face significant backlash from others who feel that their participation in the conference would be valuable.
A large group can be layered so that effectiveness is maximized. For
example,VPC executive directors met separately to discuss policy issues,
and task forces were developed on school curricula and on state legislation,
thereby reducing the number of general meetings.
Whether a broad cross-section or a more narrowly defined group of members is chosen, it is worth analyzing the potential contributions of various
disciplines (e.g., churches, business organizations, local government, and
school districts) in relation to the purpose and goals of the coalition. For
example, the VPC initially consisted of service providers. After the VPC
formed, the coalition membership decided to include church groups,
police, womens associations, block associations,and interested citizens.This
expansion better served the coalitions public education and policy goals.
It is important to consider to what extent organizations should be asked to
join and become official members of the coalition. A general rule of
thumb is not to seek official recognition (which typically means official
action by the Board of Directors of a member organization) until the coalition has a clearly defined purpose or specific activities that would be strongly enhanced by this recognition.While official approval may add some clout
to the coalition,a more loosely formed coalition will initially minimize the
need for bylaws and formal decision making structures, which can prove
cumbersome and pose an early barrier to cooperation.
More formalized membership procedures may become an issue when and
if the coalition wishes to make public statements or endorse policy measures. Individuals who are official members (e.g., with their names on the
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 17 Prevention Institute
3TIP: New Blood
New members add vitality to the
coalition. While most coalition
organizers focus on providing
information on an individual basis
when they start a coalition, they
fail to recognize its even more
important as memberships
change. Providing an orientation
session for new members often
reduces their need to interrupt
coalition meetings to catch up
with the topics.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 18 www.preventioninstitute.org
coalitions letterhead) are more likely to be concerned about making public statements.Although a more deliberate decision making process, involving more time, will be required in order to take a stand on an issue, the
resulting statement will have more credibility because it has more supporters. Official membership works best when the coalition is smaller and participating organizations are represented by higher-ups who can make
decisions on the spot.
Due to the inter-organizational nature of coalitions, public statements can
become very complicated, particularly those statements that individual
members cannot make without the approval of their Board of Directors.
Even when individual members agree on a statement, the difficulty in
obtaining Board approval often impedes the possibility of making a public
statement in a timely manner.
D. Decision making methods
In Social Policy, S.M. Miller identifies good decision making procedures
as key to coalition success. He recommends establishing a specific decision
making process before problems occur.You cannot count on stamina, he
writes, Make clear early in the life of the coalition…how decisions are
going to be made.8 It is important, however,that discussions on how decisions are made not become a barrier to coalition effectiveness. Sometimes
coalitions become so involved in these kinds of discussions they lose track
of their fundamental purpose. It may be helpful to ask if a particular decision making structure is vital to the functioning of the coalition. Bear in
mind that some members may find lengthy decision making discussions
distracting and, as a result, may decrease their attendance.Therefore, avoid
discussions that are too detailed or cumbersome.
Decisions can be made by consensus. However, this process can become
unmanageable. To avoid this, define consensus as an approach that the
majority supports and others can live with.Health-based coalitions are usually happy to relinquish some of the detailed decision making in exchange
for simplicity and reasonable results. On the other hand, sensitivity must be
exercised, especially on charged issues,such as decisions related to money,
policy,and turf.There will be cases in which consensus cannot be reached
and the group must either vote or accept that there will be no action on a
certain issue. Sometimes having the group clarify in advance the kinds of
issues that are charged (e.g., grants, turf, or legislation) will help to avoid
problems later.
3TIP: Staying Focused
Coalitions often gravitate toward
discussing their own internal
workings and processes rather
than resolving the community issue
they came together to address.
Avoid this identity crisis.
Though some coalition decisions
require a group process to reach
closure, the true purpose of the
coalition must not get lost.
3TIP: Public Statements
Sometimes the positions of the
coalition can be kept at arms
length. For example, a letter may
state that the coalitions position
represents the opinion of the
majority of participating groups,
but does not necessarily reflect
the position of any particular
organizational member or group.
A consistent agenda helps
people feel at home in
a meeting. They know what
to expect and where to
best fit in the comments
they want to make.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 19 Prevention Institute
e. Meeting structure
One of the most important ingredients for an effective coalition is a good
meeting agenda.A clear agenda structure, which may be modified by those
present at the beginning of the meeting, can reinforce the coalitions purpose and foster collaboration.To achieve such positive results, the agenda
must be carefully planned and, ideally, should be distributed prior to the
meeting.
A regular agenda format will help the coalition be focused, giving members a sense of direction and momentum. Different formats will work better for some groups, but most agendas begin with agenda modification, a
review of the previous meetings minutes (if minutes are kept), and introductions, check-ins, or announcements. Many meetings conclude by
evaluating the meeting,setting a date for the next meeting,and listing items
for the next meetings agenda.
The heart of the agenda will vary between groups depending upon their
missions and the role of members identified in the structure of the coalition. For instance,a focus on legislation would require a place on the agenda for updates on policy efforts, while a group that is concentrating on
community outreach and education might have a section on the agenda for
community action. Large, broad-based coalitions may have a variety of
committees, and therefore a section for committee reports would be
important. Inviting guest speakers or adding presentations by coalition
members can enliven the agenda.
The lead agency, or whoever is responsible for developing the meetings
agenda,needs to discuss with the meeting facilitator how the agenda should
be organized.They should anticipate which topics could generate controversy, who should lead the discussion on each item, which items require a
decision, how much time should be allotted, and what the best process
for each item would be (e.g., brainstorm, small group discussion, refer to
committee, report only, etc.).
The agenda that is distributed to members prior to a meeting is often just
an outline, with suggested times for each item.The facilitator will bring an
annotated agenda with notes about who will guide each section, what
process will be used,and any other notes that will ensure that the meeting
moves smoothly through the agenda in the allocated time. For long meetings, or meetings where the agenda is substantially altered from what was
initially distributed, the facilitator may write a revised agenda on butcher
paper taped to the wall. Bringing materials like pens, butcher paper, audio
visual equipment, and tape is generally the lead agencys responsibility, but
these materials may also be provided by staff at the meeting site.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 20 www.preventioninstitute.org
f. participation between meetings
Successful coalitions generally have active planning groups or subcommittees, formal and informal, which carry out coalition activities. Based on
time constraints, commitment, and relevance to their organizations own
objectives, different members may show markedly different levels of
involvement.
Unless coalition objectives are closely related to the objectives of the membership, it is not wise to expect more than a few hours of additional commitment between meetings. Often members have less time available than
what is realistically needed to make a coalition work.Be sensitive to the fact
that coalition work is not the main job of coalition members. Some people
volunteer far more than is appropriate both because of their enthusiasm at
the time and because there may be group pressure for everyone to contribute. Keep reminding people that it is okay to say no. Remember that
coalition members will not always fulfill their commitments. The more
directly coalition activities are related to the specific objectives of the participating organizations, the more the coalition will accomplish and flourish.
It may be helpful to encourage the most active participants in the coalition
to form a steering committee, which provides leadership by discussing
long-range goals and the steps and strategies to achieve them. A steering
committee often works well as an informal open body. For example, lunch
meetings between coalition sessions can bring together key participants and
allow them to provide their best input while increasing their buy-in.Members of a steering committee may be selected by the group as a whole or,
in less formal situations,the lead agency may encourage members to attend
the lunch meetings. It is important to not exclude anyone from participation. Coalitions are not just for fun, but when members enjoy working
together, the coalition can achieve more of its objectives.
One of the main concerns organizations voice when participating in coalitions is that the coalition utilizes too much staff time, which is at a premium in this era of cutbacks in health and human services. Hence, the simpler the design of a coalition, the better. Furthermore, encouraging members to participate in activities of their own choosing minimizes the possibility of some members over-committing their time and burning out.
In all areas of coalition anatomy, the same rules apply: minimize complications, maximize relevance,and encourage participation.
3TIP: Good Food
Nothing is better for coalition
morale than healthy refreshments!
step 7
maintain coalition vitality
Coalition building is a craft,requiring broad vision and careful attention to
detail. Leadership in coalition building requires knowing not only how to
create a coalition structure, but also how to recognize the warning signs of
problems that may arise.The ability of coalition leaders to do both will
greatly increase the coalitions chances for success. It is important for leaders to work hard at maintaining the vitality and enthusiasm of the coalition.
Warning signs may be difficult to recognize because even the most successful coalition has ebbs and flows.By dealing with potential problems as they
emerge, however,the vitality of the coalition can be maintained. For example, at the June VPC meeting, a member noticed that attendance had
decreased again. In fact, two subcommittees had no reports because hardly
anyone had attended the meetings.The member said that he was too worried about his agencys budget to do anything to help solve the attendance
problem.VPC members were not able to fix this fundamental problem, but
did discuss it and decided to reduce coalition objectives and lengthen the
coalitions timeline.In addition,theVPC sent a letter to the Board of Supervisors decrying the negative impact of the budget cuts and asking the Board
to reinstate funds to the agencies. In addition, theVPC focused its summer
meeting specifically on a budget forum and postponed subcommittee
meetings to conserve member time and resources.
Several activities that are important for maximizing coalition vitality are
described below.These include: noting and addressing coalition difficulties;
sharing power and leadership;recruiting and involving new members; promoting renewal by providing training and by bringing challenging, exciting new issues to the group;and celebrating and sharing successes.
addressing coalition difficulties
One clear indication that a coalition is having difficulties is a decline in coalition membership.While earlier warning signs are less obvious, they might
appearas:repetitious meetings or meetings that consist primarily ofannouncements and reports;meetings that become bogged down in procedures;significant failures in follow-through; ongoing challenges of authority and/or battles between members; lack of member enthusiasm; or an unacceptable drain
on lead agency resources as a result of attempts to bolster the coalition.
Coalition artistsmust watch for warning signs, be aware of the conditions
that can have a negative impact on coalition effectiveness, and constantly
work to minimize the difficulties.The most common difficulties include: 1)
poor group dynamics,including unnecessarily draining decision making and
power dynamics such as tension over leadership, decisions, or turf; 2)
membership/participation concerns such as a difficult agency or member,
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 21 Prevention Institute
3TIP: maintaining Vitality
A group attempting to coordinate
services or embark on a joint
advocacy effort should expect
more pitfalls than a group formed
solely for the purpose of information
sharing, as the former tasks are
more complex and demand more
commitment.
Maintaining open
communication means
not just talking to the
people who do come to
meetingsbut the people
who stopped. It may take
probing to find out what
their real concerns are.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 22 www.preventioninstitute.org
changes in the needs of participating agencies, shifts in staff assignments,
changes in available resources, or member burnout; 3) coalition emphasis on
too many long-term goals without short-term objectives to generate shortterm wins that add energy to the group;4) ineffectiveness in achieving coalition activities due to inadequate planning or resources; or 5) changes affecting the coalitions mission, such as new legislation that has an impact on the
objective reality of the issue the coalition was formed to address.
Although the lead agency will not always be able to overcome these challenges, effective management of the problem is an essential first step.The
lead agency should identify and respond to significant problems, issues, or
changes that appear to impede the coalition. It is the lead agencys responsibility to bring identified problems to the attention of coalition members
and to encourage collaborative solutions.The most valuable source of information about negative coalition conditions is input from the coalition
members themselves.Therefore, it is crucial to maintain open communication among the members so that problems surface quickly. Furthermore, it
is important to be flexible regarding how objectives will be met.
sharing the power and leadership
Many coalition members will readily defer power to the lead agency in
order to facilitate smooth functioning.However, if the coalition solidifies as
an independent entity and develops a body of work that it performs or creates collectively,members will expect greater involvement in decision making.It is at this point that the coalition becomes a more independent group
and requires less guidance from the lead agency.
Ironically, the characteristics which indicate a strong coalitiona heightened sense of collective identity and a high degree of interest in and commitment to work which is developed collaborativelycan also exacerbate
tensions in defining the direction of the coalition. It is important to deal
with these issues directly. Negotiating issues of a power imbalance in decision making, especially when a coalition has achieved this state of maturity, requires sensitivity and may require setting aside extra time to clarify.
recruiting and involving new members
Membership changes are to be expected. Sometimes an organizations mandate will change; other times staff members simply have personal interests and
priorities that draw them away from the coalition. It is worthwhile to develop new leadership and support periodically.Distributing coalition minutesand
information widely outside the coalition is one way to inform a broad group
of potential members.New members add energy and enthusiasm to the coalitions ongoing activities.Attention must be paid to ensure that they are wel-
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 23 Prevention Institute
comed and oriented to fulfill vital functions on the coalition. It is important
to attend to the ways that the coalition can be inclusive,as many people leave
coalitions after one or two meetings because they feel that they have nothing
special to offer.An invitation to join a subcommittee can be helpful.
promoting renewal by providing training and by bringing challenging, exciting new issues to the group
Coalition building and injury prevention each require their own set of
skills, and some members will be more experienced than others. Every
member will bring to the coalition his or her own perspective.Therefore,
a broad framework, a common vocabulary, and a set of principles for preventing injury must be presented early on in the coalitions formation.
Remember, too, that new members will need to be brought up to speed.
Further training, encouraging coalition members to attend conferences,and
bringing in guest speakers can be helpful.This approach will ensure that
members share the big picture of the problem as well as the underlying philosophy of the coalition. Everyone involved in the coalition, both lead
agency staff and members, can and will benefit from training, consultation,
and the opportunity to discuss what is and is not working.
Coalition work is frustrating and exhausting at times.Therefore, retreats,
trainings, opportunities to discuss coalition building with others,and recognition of lead agency staff are all essential in preventing burnout. Recognizing that lead agency staff are a critical resource required for coalition
effectiveness, it is important to provide them with support and encouragement. Lead agency staff and coalition members need exposure to new
information on their chosen issue in order to stimulate creative ideas and
to reinvigorate coalition efforts.
celebrating and sharing successes
Maintaining morale and a sense that the coalition is playing a vital role in
addressing the problem are essential.Too often, coalitions focus on problems
and next steps without pausing to appreciate their accomplishments. Keys
to boosting coalition morale include implementing effective activities that
result in tangible products, giving coalition members credit for coalition
successes, celebrating short-term successes with publicity or awards, reexamining objectives,and taking a brief respite from coalition meetings and
activities.
step 8
make improvements tHrougH evaluation
Coalition evaluations can provide the assigned staff person, lead agency,and
coalition members with important feedback. Components of coalitions
that should be evaluated include objectives, activities, processes, and unanticipated events. By assessing the processes, outcomes,and impacts associated with coalition activities, staff can improve their outreach and coordination skills,and members can determine which strategies help the coalition
achieve its ultimate goals most effectively.The results, if positive, can also
help the coalition improve its reputation within the community and can be
included in future resource development proposals. Furthermore, when a
coalition modifies its efforts to eliminate problems pinpointed by an evaluation, the coalitions credibility can improve significantly.
Coalitions can employ two basic types of evaluation, formative and summative evaluations. Formative evaluations focus specifically on the coalitions process objectives. For example, a coalition may want to encourage
the media to promote bicycle safety.A formative evaluation would analyze
the process by which the coalition attempted to achieve this goal. Questions in the formative evaluation might include: How many members
actively monitored the local media on a regular basis? How many times
did staff and members meet with local media representatives to encourage
safe bicycling pictorials? How many times did the coalition submit press
releases or letters to the editor? The results of formative evaluations help
staff and members improve the functioning of the coalition.
Summative evaluations help coalition members to determine whether or
not the coalitions strategies resulted in the desired consequences. Summative evaluations help assess both outcome and impact objectives.To evaluate outcome objectives in the example described above,a summative evaluation would include questions like the following: Did the local media
organizations that the coalition contacted change their practices to include
photos of safe bicycling? How many coalition-sponsored activities received
coverage in the local press? To assess impact objectives,the summative evaluation might include a component that analyzed changes in parents and
childrens attitudes and behaviors after reading coverage of coalition activities.Were parents, for example, influenced to purchase bicycle helmets after
reading the coalitions articles? The answers to summative evaluation questions help coalition members make strategic decisions about strengthening
promising interventions and discontinuing ineffective ones.
Evaluating coalition efforts is not simply a matter of evaluating the effect of
the coalitions planned activities on injury prevention.What can be overlooked are the myriad effects a coalition can have, whether it achieves its
stated goal or not. Because coalition building stimulates a variety of interventions and activities, evaluation results must be interpreted thoughtfully.
Meaningful evaluation
should increase the
effectiveness of the coalition
process as well as enhance
the outcomes of the
coalition’s work.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 24 www.preventioninstitute.org
Critical to any evaluation planning is the documentation of unintended
successes. For example, as a result of the VPCs training on school-based
violence prevention, the states health education curriculum was revised to
include violence prevention.This was an unanticipated result of the coalitions efforts that was nevertheless quite significant.
Furthermore, a coalitions visibility may increase public awareness and the
communitys perception of the problem. For example,a toy store manager
who read about IPCs pedestrian safety campaign in the newspaper encouraged the toy stores corporate headquarters to sponsor the campaign in its
stores. For a limited time, all customers received free bumper stickers
encouraging safe driving practices.These examples represent the types of
side effects that often occur as a result of coalition efforts. Other spin-offs
might include liaisons between agencies that previously had not worked
together, increased rates of cross referral,and improvements in the skills and
morale of coalition participants. These effects can augment more formal
evaluation results, thus enhancing the coalitions sense of effectiveness and
legitimacy. Sometimes these results are difficult to judge.A new coalition
may experience textbook success or textbook failure. But usually not
all of the outcomes could have been predicted at the initiation of the effort.
Therefore, all facets of coalition life must be taken into account in a summation of efficacy.
Evaluation is an ongoing process throughout the life of a coalition. Every
major coalition event should be evaluated. Surveys of coalition members
will give lead agencies an idea of the level of involvement of each member.
It is ideal to evaluate whether or not further collaboration between members may occur in addition to their participation in the coalition.This information may be especially useful for formative evaluations. Likewise, simple
pre/posttests and satisfaction surveys work well for trainings, courses, and
conferences. Content analysis of meeting agendas, minutes,and attendance
lists will help determine if process, outcome, and impact objectives were
met and will help identify unintended successes.Taking the time to evaluate the effectiveness of coalition efforts is a way of acknowledging that the
skills and contributions of coalition members are important.Honest reflection also assures that the coalition grows from its experiences, regardless of
the programmatic outcome.
Evaluating a coalition can lead to changes in a coalitions approach.In addition, evaluation can increase a coalitions effectiveness and can assure that
the community and participants benefit from the coalitions activities.
Coalition evaluation is a newly emerging field,and more work needs to be
done.However, the availability of evaluation tools is increasing,and current
evaluation efforts are strengthening the ongoing work of coalitions.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 25 Prevention Institute
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 26 www.preventioninstitute.org
conclusion
Coalitions do not last forever. Sometimes a coalition can be repaired, and
sometimes, the effort to do so is not justified. Be ready to dissolve a coalition if it does not achieve satisfactory goals or if it is no longer effective.
Sometimes it is best to walk away with a handshake and a smile.At other
times a celebration at the conclusion of a successful campaign is a great way
to acknowledge the relationships forged during the life of the coalition.
Remember, virtually every carefully crafted coalition will have an impact.
An effort may fail, then partially succeed, then falter, and so on. Since
mutual trust is built up over a period of time, coalition organizers should
avoid getting so caught up in any one effort as to view it asmake or break.
Every effort (at cooperation among groups) prepares the way for greater
and more sustained efforts in the future.9 Coalitions consist of people.
Therefore, shared efforts leave us with surprises, memories, and mutual
respect.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 27 Prevention Institute
enDnotes
1 The Violence Prevention and Injury Prevention coalitions (VPC and
IPC) do not actually exist. They do, however, consist of composites of
actual groups that have been selected to elucidate the discussions.
2 Alexis deTocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. 2 (1840).
3 Developed by the Prevention Program from the work of Marshall Swift,
Ph.D., Hahnemann College, Philadelphia, PA. A paper,The Spectrum
of Prevention, and a video demonstrating this methodology, Beyond
Brochures: New Approaches to Prevention, are available through the
Prevention Program.
4 Lynn Oppenheim,Wharton Center for Applied Research, as described
in New York Times article by Daniel Goleman, Why Meetings Sometimes DontWork (June 7, 1988):B1.
5 William Riker,TheTheory of Political Coalitions inWeisner,Notes on
Policy and Practice, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT (1962).
6 A paper addressing turf is available from the Prevention Institute website
at www.preventioninstitute.org
7 Terry R. Black, Coalition Building: Some Suggestions, Child Welfare,
Vol. LXII, #3, (May, 1983): 266.
8 Coalition Etiquette: Ground Rules for Building Unity, Social Policy,
Vol. 14, #2 (Fall 1983): 49.
9 Cherie R. Brown, The Art of Coalition Building:A Guide for Community Leaders, published by the American Jewish Committee (1984).
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 28 www.preventioninstitute.org
bibliograpHy
Black,T. R. 1983. Coalition Building: Some Suggestions. ChildWelfare.Vol.
LXII, No. 3:266.
Brown, C. R. 1984.The Art of Coalition Building:A Guide for Community Leaders. American Jewish Community.
Coalition Etiquette: Ground Rules for Building Unity. Social Policy. 1983.
Vol. 14, No. 4:49.
deTocqueville,A. 1840.Vol. 2. Democracy in America.
Feighery, E.and Rogers,T. 1989. How-to Guide on Building and Maintaining
Effective Coalitions. Health Promotion Resource Center, Stanford Center
for Research in Disease Prevention.
Fisher,R.and Ury,W. 1981.Getting toYes:NegotiatingAgreementWithout Giving In.
Goleman, D. 1988.Why Meetings Sometimes DontWork. NewYorkTimes.
B1.
Jones,V.and Hutchins, E. 1993. Finding Common Ground:A Call for Collaboration. Maternal and Child Health Bureau.
Massachusetts Adolescent Violence Prevention Project. 1992. Incremental
Approach to Developing a Community Based Coalition. Phase One: Basic
Definitions.
Massachusetts Adolescent Violence Prevention Project. 1992. Incremental
Approach to Developing a Community Based Coalition.PhaseTwo:Coalition
Building with a Coalition Coordinator.
McKnight, L. and Kretzmann, J. 1990. Mapping Community Capacity. Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research, Northwestern University.
McKnight, L.and Kretzmann, J. 1984. Community Organizing in the 80s:
Toward a Post-Alinsky Agenda. Social Policy.
Mulford, C.and Klonglan, G. 1982. Creating Coordination among Organizations: An Orientation and Planning Guide. North Central Region
Extension Sociology Committee.
NationalAssembly of NationalVoluntary Health and SocialWelfare Organizations. 1991. The Community Collaboration Manual.
Prevention Program. 1993.The Spectrum of Prevention.
Reisch, M.,Wenocur, S., and Russel-Erlich, J. 1986. Symposium of Community Organization. Journal of Sociology and SocialWelfare.Vol. XIII, No.
3.
Riker,W.1962.TheTheory of Political Coalitions.Yale University Press Notes
on Policy and Practice.
Sofaer, S. 1992. Coalitions and Public Health:A Program Managers Guide to the
Issues. National AIDS Information and Education Program Center for
Disease Control.
Straus, D.and Doyle, M. 1976. How to Make MeetingsWork.
Wiesner, S. 1983. Notes on Policy and Practice, Fighting Back:A Critical
Analysis of Coalition Building in Human Services. University of Chicagos
Social Service Review.
Wolff,T.and Foster,D.Monitoring and Evaluation of Coalitions.Paper presented at Community Partners, October 1993.
DEVELoPING EFFECTIVE CoALITIoNS: An Eight Step Guide 29 Prevention Institute
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