Sex roles and perceptions of femininity and masculinity of Hispanic women

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With regard to acculturation and nontraditional self-efficacy, previous research demonstrated a relation between these variables with another racial/ethnic minority group (Tang et al., 1999). The nonsignificant relation with this sample may be due to defining acculturation level along a single continuum and the distribution of the sample, which was overwhelmingly bicultural (n 237). Future studies should conduct multisample analyses on the basis of acculturation level to determine if differences are present among nonacculturated, bicultural, and highly acculturated individuals.

Feminist attitudes also were not related to nontraditional career self-efficacy, a finding that has been consistently reported in samples of predominantly White women (OBrien, 1996; OBrien & Fassinger, 1993). It is possible that the lack of variability in scores on the measure assessing feminist values made detecting a relation with career self-efficacy difficult. Alternatively, feminist beliefs may not be salient for this sample of Mexican American women, perhaps demonstrated by mean scores in the mid-range on this instrument. At times, the feminist movement has been criti- cized for focusing on the needs and values of White women (Espin, 1994). It is possible that moderate beliefs about feminism combined with little variability in scores on this measure may have contributed to the lack of predictive validity of this variable with regard to confidence in pursuing nontraditional occupations.

In addition to acculturation and feminist attitudes not predicting nontraditional career self-efficacy, mothers educational level and mothers career traditionality did not influence confidence in pur- suing nontraditional occupations. There may be other factors in the mother daughter relationship that influence the strength of the relation to nontraditional career self-efficacy. Indeed, OBrien et al. (1996) found that high school girls relationships with their mothers often included conflictual feelings. These feelings could affect mothers influence on their daughters career decision mak- ing. Future research studies should assess the quality of mother

Figure 4. Respecified model predicting Mexican American adolescent womens career aspirations. *p .05.

23MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN

daughter relationships to ascertain the predictive ability of moth- ers influence on daughters career self-efficacy. Alternatively, these girls may have looked to their fathers for career role mod- eling, a finding reported by OBrien et al. (2000). Seeking other family members for career role modeling may be common among Mexican American girls, especially because Mexican American women tend to be employed in traditional career fields. Indeed, over a third of this sample reported that their mothers were homemakers. Thus, we suggest that future studies also assess the influence of additional role models beyond mothers, including fathers, aunts, uncles, grandparents, siblings, and peers.

An additional SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) proposition that was not supported was the hypothesized relation between nontraditional career self-efficacy and career aspiration. Although nontraditional career self-efficacy appears to exert an influence on the types of careers Mexican American adolescent women choose, this con- struct did not contribute to their aspiration or goals within a given career. Programs that expose Mexican American women to non- traditional careers and provide opportunities for increased self- efficacy in performing tasks associated with nontraditional occu- pations could enhance the relation between self-efficacy and aspiration and perhaps increase the number of Mexican American adolescent women who develop interests in and choose nontradi- tional, prestigious careers (see OBrien, Dukstein, Jackson, Tom- linson, & Kamatuka, 1999, for an example of a career interven- tion). Moreover, OBrien and her colleagues suggested that educational and career planning occur far in advance of graduation from high school. Indeed, prior research recommended the imple- mentation and evaluation of career-oriented workshops, classes, or summer programs with middle school and high school students who are at risk for educational and vocational underachievement (OBrien et al., 1999; OBrien et al., 2000). Fouad (1995) noted the need for such interventions to focus specifically on Hispanic students. Programs that demystify the college experience, improve decision-making skills, and assist participants in learning about themselves, colleges/universities, and careers could enhance career self-efficacy.

Also, the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) proposition that career interests influence career goals was not supported by our data; a similar finding was reported with Asian American college students (Tang et al., 1999). For this sample of Mexican American women, factors other than interests, such as confidence in their abilities to carry out the duties of the career, had a stronger influence on career goals. Alternatively, it is possible that Mexican American adoles- cent women may not have the luxury of choosing a career based on their interests. If this finding is replicated in other samples, we recommend that Lent et al. consider revising their proposition to reflect the lack of salience of interests in predicting the career paths of women of color. Moreover, psychologists might recon- sider the use of a traditional approach to career counseling with Mexican American women, as other factors beyond matching interests and careers may be stronger determinants to their career decisions. Counselors also need to assess if career choices are consonant with interests, and if not, they should explore the obstacles that may be preventing them from pursuing careers in which they have interests.

Finally, modifications to the model suggested that acculturation level significantly influenced the selection of nontraditional, highly prestigious careers, and feminist attitudes was a significant

predictor of career traditionality and career aspiration. Women who were more oriented toward the Anglo culture tended to choose less prestigious and more traditional careers. Also, women with higher levels of feminist attitudes were more likely to choose traditional careers and have higher career aspiration. These rela- tions were contrary to prior research that suggested that nontradi- tional gender role attitudes were positively related to Mexican American womens educational and career choices (McWhirter et al., 1998; Valenzuela, 1993; Vasquez-Nuttal et al., 1987). One possible explanation for these findings is that acculturated women may be aware of the sociopolitical atmosphere for women in workplaces that are dominated by men and thus may choose to avoid those careers. Results also indicated that women who as- cribed to feminist beliefs were more likely to be goal oriented within their chosen career. Indeed, OBrien et al. (2000) reported this same phenomenon among a sample of White college women and suggested that women may choose nontraditional, less presti- gious careers to balance personal and work demands, yet may desire to achieve within their career. As such, it is reasonable to expect that these adolescents may perceive more opportunities for advancement in traditional careers for women.

Several of Lent et al.s (1994) propositions were supported by our data. First, nontraditional career self-efficacy was found to have a direct influence on Mexican American womens nontradi- tional career interests, career prestige, and career traditionality. As nontraditional career self-efficacy increased, nontraditional career interests also increased. Furthermore, higher levels of nontradi- tional career self-efficacy were related to the selection of nontra- ditional and prestigious careers. These findings support the SCCT propositions that people develop interests in areas in which they have a strong sense of agency, and they select careers in which they feel confident about their ability to complete the tasks nec- essary for the career.

Second, results of the present study provided empirical support for Lent et al.s (1994) proposition that the presence of support and few perceived barriers has a positive effect on career goals. Mex- ican American adolescent women who perceived support from their parents for their career pursuits and who anticipated fewer barriers chose prestigious careers, and women who perceived their parents to be supportive of their career goals had stronger levels of career aspiration. This finding contradicts an earlier study that found that perceptions of barriers were not predictive of the career expectations of Mexican American girls (McWhirter et al., 1998) and replicates those studies that found that emotional support from the family was predictive of educational plans and career expec- tations (Gandara, 1982; Hernandez et al., 1994; Keith & Lichtman, 1994; Ramos & Sanchez, 1995; Vasquez, 1982; Wycoff, 1996).

These findings suggest that Mexican American adolescent women may choose highly prestigious careers on the basis of the approval of others or their family obligations. Indeed, with the exception of feminist attitudes, parental support contributed more to the prediction of Mexican American womens selection of prestigious careers than any other variable assessed in this study. These findings are important given the emphasis placed on the family unit in the Mexican American culture and are consistent with vocational decision-making behaviors among Asian Ameri- cans, a group who similarly place a high value on family (Leong & Gim, 1995; Leong & Serafica, 1995). Mexican American women from traditional families may not have the support to

24 FLORES AND OBRIEN

pursue nontraditional educational and vocational aspirations if they conflict with cultural norms and family expectations. Coun- selors should address these factors when working with Mexican American women.

These findings highlight the salience of addressing cultural and familial expectations when providing career counseling to Mexican American women. Furthermore, counseling psychol- ogists should be encouraged to develop innovative career in- tervention programs for Mexican American adolescents that involve parents and other family members. Parental involve- ment in vocational interventions could facilitate the lines of communication between children and their parents about career development and job requirements, which could assist students in planning for their future. Moreover, parents and children could clarify the expectations and dreams that each holds re- garding educational and career attainment. Researching the effectiveness of these programs in students educational and career planning is strongly recommended.

The importance of family also was reflected in the educational goals of these young women. Most of the participants who planned to continue their education beyond high school indicated that they would enroll in the local 2-year community college or 4-year state university. Indeed, students reported that the proximity of the college/university to home was one of the most important factors in choosing a college/university. Remaining geographically close to their families while attending college seems to be a salient consideration in the educational planning of Mexican American women. It is unknown, however, whether these young women choose to stay close to home because of familial expectations or personal preferences. It is also unclear whether this choice pro- vides needed support to pursue their educational and career aspi- rations or if their future opportunities are limited by this decision. Research is needed to understand how attending college in the same hometown facilitates or hinders attrition and graduation rates as well as the career orientation of Mexican American women.

Future researchers should also consider incorporating additional variables not included in the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) model of career choice given that the hypothesized models only accounted for 8%, 11%, and 13% of the variance in the prediction of prestige, traditionality, and career aspiration, respectively. Because the proximal contextual variable of support contributed to Mexican American womens career choice prestige and career aspirations, consideration of other contextual variables that may contribute to their career goals is warranted. Indeed, analyses revealed that the background contextual variables of acculturation level and femi- nist attitudes have a direct influence on the prestige level and traditionality of Mexican American womens career choices that are not represented in Lent et al.s proposed model. Furthermore, environmental factors related to the school (i.e., vocational guid- ance programs in the school) are not included in Lent et al.s model but should be investigated.

The reliability estimates for the scales used to assess feminist attitudes and career aspiration were relatively low, and thus, the findings related to these constructs should be interpreted with caution. For example, it is possible that significant path coeffi- cients may emerge in the career aspiration model with a more reliable scale. Given the paucity of research with Mexican Amer- icans, future studies should attempt to improve on the psychomet- ric properties of the measures used in this study and to develop

new instruments for use in research with this population. Addi- tional testing of the revised model with several samples of Mex- ican American women is necessary to determine if these results can be generalized. Research is also needed to evaluate the validity of Lent et al.s (1994) model with Mexican American boys and men.

As noted earlier, only a modest amount of variance in the criterion variables was accounted for by the social cognitive and contextual variables assessed in this study. Additional variables that may contribute to career goals should be considered in future studies with Mexican American women. For example, researchers have suggested that socioeconomic status and student ability may be important variables to assess among Mexican Americans and female participants (e.g., Fassinger, 1990; Lauver & Jones, 1991; McWhirter et al., 1998). Moreover, given that teen pregnancy and marriage occur with some frequency in this population, assessing pregnancy and marriage rates at this age could provide data re- garding how these events affect the educational and career aspi- rations of young women. Relatedly, although this study included an assessment of several environmental influences on womens career development, the focus was on individual variables. Addi- tional research is needed to investigate the ways in which the social environment limits the educational and occupational oppor- tunities of Mexican American women.

Finally, a longitudinal study that assesses the career orientation of Mexican American women at periodic intervals following high school graduation is recommended. Such a study would provide information regarding the factors that affect the vocational devel- opment of Mexican American women over the course of their lives. A longitudinal study would also provide useful information regarding the factors that contribute to college graduation among Mexican American women. Future studies could investigate the barriers encountered by students who do not complete college and explore the characteristics shared by those who successfully com- plete college. Counseling psychologists could then develop empir- ically based interventions to optimize success in college.

In conclusion, the results of this study advanced knowledge regarding the explanatory power and limitations of SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) in describing the career development of Mexican Amer- ican adolescent women. Because Mexican American women are largely underrepresented in higher education and in nontraditional, high-prestige occupations, investigating their educational and ca- reer aspirations at a critical decision-making time of their lives (in their senior year of high school) seems critically important. Such information could inform counseling interventions aimed at this population to enable Mexican American women to pursue aca- demic and career opportunities that correspond with their ability and maximize their potential for educational and vocational success.

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Received February 2, 2000 Revision received March 19, 2001

Accepted March 21, 2001

27MEXICAN AMERICAN WOMEN

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Writing a law essay may prove to be an insurmountable obstacle, especially when you need to know the peculiarities of the legislative framework. Take advantage of our top-notch law specialists and get superb grades and 100% satisfaction.

What discipline/subjects do you deal in?

We have highlighted some of the most popular subjects we handle above. Those are just a tip of the iceberg. We deal in all academic disciplines since our writers are as diverse. They have been drawn from across all disciplines, and orders are assigned to those writers believed to be the best in the field. In a nutshell, there is no task we cannot handle; all you need to do is place your order with us. As long as your instructions are clear, just trust we shall deliver irrespective of the discipline.

Are your writers competent enough to handle my paper?

Our essay writers are graduates with bachelor’s, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college degree. All our academic writers have a minimum of two years of academic writing. We have a stringent recruitment process to ensure that we get only the most competent essay writers in the industry. We also ensure that the writers are handsomely compensated for their value. The majority of our writers are native English speakers. As such, the fluency of language and grammar is impeccable.

What if I don’t like the paper?

There is a very low likelihood that you won’t like the paper.

Reasons being:

• When assigning your order, we match the paper’s discipline with the writer’s field/specialization. Since all our writers are graduates, we match the paper’s subject with the field the writer studied. For instance, if it’s a nursing paper, only a nursing graduate and writer will handle it. Furthermore, all our writers have academic writing experience and top-notch research skills.
• We have a quality assurance that reviews the paper before it gets to you. As such, we ensure that you get a paper that meets the required standard and will most definitely make the grade.

In the event that you don’t like your paper:

• The writer will revise the paper up to your pleasing. You have unlimited revisions. You simply need to highlight what specifically you don’t like about the paper, and the writer will make the amendments. The paper will be revised until you are satisfied. Revisions are free of charge
• We will have a different writer write the paper from scratch.
• Last resort, if the above does not work, we will refund your money.

Will the professor find out I didn’t write the paper myself?

Not at all. All papers are written from scratch. There is no way your tutor or instructor will realize that you did not write the paper yourself. In fact, we recommend using our assignment help services for consistent results.

What if the paper is plagiarized?

We check all papers for plagiarism before we submit them. We use powerful plagiarism checking software such as SafeAssign, LopesWrite, and Turnitin. We also upload the plagiarism report so that you can review it. We understand that plagiarism is academic suicide. We would not take the risk of submitting plagiarized work and jeopardize your academic journey. Furthermore, we do not sell or use prewritten papers, and each paper is written from scratch.

When will I get my paper?

You determine when you get the paper by setting the deadline when placing the order. All papers are delivered within the deadline. We are well aware that we operate in a time-sensitive industry. As such, we have laid out strategies to ensure that the client receives the paper on time and they never miss the deadline. We understand that papers that are submitted late have some points deducted. We do not want you to miss any points due to late submission. We work on beating deadlines by huge margins in order to ensure that you have ample time to review the paper before you submit it.

Will anyone find out that I used your services?

We have a privacy and confidentiality policy that guides our work. We NEVER share any customer information with third parties. Noone will ever know that you used our assignment help services. It’s only between you and us. We are bound by our policies to protect the customer’s identity and information. All your information, such as your names, phone number, email, order information, and so on, are protected. We have robust security systems that ensure that your data is protected. Hacking our systems is close to impossible, and it has never happened.

How our Assignment  Help Service Works

1.      Place an order

You fill all the paper instructions in the order form. Make sure you include all the helpful materials so that our academic writers can deliver the perfect paper. It will also help to eliminate unnecessary revisions.

2.      Pay for the order

Proceed to pay for the paper so that it can be assigned to one of our expert academic writers. The paper subject is matched with the writer’s area of specialization.

3.      Track the progress

You communicate with the writer and know about the progress of the paper. The client can ask the writer for drafts of the paper. The client can upload extra material and include additional instructions from the lecturer. Receive a paper.

4.      Download the paper

The paper is sent to your email and uploaded to your personal account. You also get a plagiarism report attached to your paper.

PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH US TODAY AND GET A PERFECT SCORE!!!

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