Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking

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Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking ORDER NOW FOR CUSTOMIZED AND ORIGINAL ESSAY PAPERS ON Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking After reading Chapter 11 and 12 in your course text and the article “ Considering the Definition of Addiction ” which covers the biological basis of emotion, addiction (substance abuse disorder), and disordered behavior, analyze the high rate of smoking in those diagnosed with schizophrenia compared to the general population. Why are smoking cessation interventions less successful in these individuals? Review the accepted mechanisms of tobacco abuse and dependence and the etiologic theories of schizophrenia. What are the biological and/or psychological mechanisms between schizophrenia and smoking? Include information on brain structures, pathways, neurotransmitters/receptors, and psychological factors when discussing the topic areas above. Additional emphasis should be placed on relating the underlying pathology of schizophrenia to tobacco dependence/abuse and the biological or psychological mechanism of the observed association of smoking behavior to the diagnosis of schizophrenia. Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking In keeping with the focus of this class, the emphasis should be placed on the role of neurotransmitter and receptor systems, neuroanatomical structures, and neurological functional pathways. You must use a minimum of one peer-reviewed source that was published within the last five years, documented in APA style, as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. How does the data support the proposed mechanism in the article you chose? What other possible mechanisms might explain this relationship? Is it possible that biology has nothing to do with the relationship between smoking and schizophrenia? Your post should be a minimum of 250 words. You may cite and reference your textbook, required reading and/or multimedia, but these will not fulfill the source requirement. undefined undefined http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3210595/ attachment_1 attachment_2 11 Visuals Unlimited, Inc./Science VU/ Visuals Unlimited/Getty Images Images.com/Corbis Biological Bases of Emotion and Addiction Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • • • • • Explain the three components of emotion. Contrast the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories of emotion. Identify the regions of the brain that have been implicated in the regulation of emotions. List four differences between positive and negative emotions. Describe how fear and rage are produced and controlled in the brain. Explain how serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and testosterone influence aggression. Name at least three aggressive and anxiety disorders, and explain how each is treated. Draw a diagram that illustrates the role of various neurotransmitters in producing feelings of pleasure, according to the cascade theory of reward. Define reward deficiency syndrome and describe how it is related to addiction. Compare and contrast psychological and physical dependence. Explain the role of dopamine in addiction. Describe the three stages of addiction according to the hedonic homeostatic dysregulation model. wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 327 7/11/13 1:24 PM Section 11.1 Emotion CHAPTER 11 While picnicking with a companion, Walter is suddenly overcome by a strange feeling. He imagines seeing two large, white male dogs fighting, but he is puzzled because he knows only one such dog is really present. Intrigued, he chases them, but the dogs run away and vanish “into nothing” as they jump over a river. In their place Walter sees a fisherman in waders holding out a fly rod. Suddenly, Walter charges the man—a total stranger toward whom he harbored no ill feelings—and pushes him underwater, saying, “I’ll teach you how to fish like a bear.” The man, in his 40s, finds a rock and tries to hit Walter in the face. Meanwhile, Walter’s picnic companion arrives, grabs his head, and shouts, “No! No! Don’t do it!” But Walter, seemingly emotionless, bites her finger and holds the man under until he drowns. He then tries to drown his companion, too, but he suddenly comes to his senses and lets her go (LoPiccolo, 1996, p. 52). Walter was a handsome man in his early 20s at the time of this homicide. People who knew Walter called him mild mannered and a social loner. His police report indicated that he had no criminal record and no history of violence. A forensic psychiatrist was called in to examine Walter because the homicide he committed was so bizarre. Most homicides, approximately 90% of them, are committed by a murderer who has a motive and a plan. Most murderers feel strong emotions such as rage, greed, or jealousy when they commit their murders. But Walter had no motive, no plan, and no feelings of emotion as he drowned the stranger who happened to be fishing nearby. What caused Walter to commit murder? To understand the answer to this question, you will need to learn how emotions are produced and controlled by the brain.Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking In this chapter we will examine the biological basis of emotions. We will also take a look at addictions because these behaviors use many of the same brain structures and mechanisms as emotional behavior does. Let’s begin by defining emotion. 11.1 Emotion W e talk about emotions all the time. I’m so happy to see you! Dad was thrilled when he found his watch. Polly was very angry at the interruption. Jamil was sad when the trip was over. Tika loved the gift you bought her. Kevin got scared when the trees began to fall over. Each of these statements describes a feeling or emotional reaction to a stimulus. For example, seeing someone you love causes happiness, finding a lost watch produces pleasure, an interruption causes anger, and so forth. An emotion doesn’t occur on its own. A stimulus is needed to initiate the reaction we call an emotion. An emotion is a complicated response to a particular stimulus. The formal definition of an emotion has three components: An emotion is a cognitive experience that is accompanied by an affective reaction and a characteristic physiological response. That is, an emotion involves thought processes (cognitive experience), alterations in mood (affective reaction), and a bodily reaction (physiological response). When you are experiencing an emotion, you are consciously aware that the emotion is occurring as you are thinking about the stimulus and your response to that stimulus. Your mood changes when you experience an emotion, becoming more positive or negative. This affective component of emotion is referred to as feeling (Panksepp, 1989). In addition, the sympathetic nervous system is activated when you experience an emotion. Recall from Chapter 2 that the sympathetic nervous system produces a number of changes in your body when it is activated: Your pupils dilate, your heart beats faster, your breathing rate speeds up, you begin to sweat, your saliva becomes thicker, your blood leaves your gut and flows to your muscles, and so forth. These physiological responses accompany all emotional states. wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 328 7/10/13 12:37 PM Section 11.1 Emotion CHAPTER 11 Expression of emotions appears to be universal across all cultures. Regardless of the culture in which an individual is raised, similar facial expressions are used to communicate emotion. Figure 11.1 illustrates a series of faces expressing various emotions. See if you can determine the emotion being expressed in each photograph. When you experience an emotion, the somatic nervous system reflexively initiates contraction of certain muscles in your face by way of cranial nerve VII, the facial nerve, which innervates the muscles of facial expression. For example, when you are happy, muscles in your face contract to pull the corners of your mouth up and back. These muscle contractions are produced reflexively in response to certain stimuli. Figure 11.1: Facial expression of emotion No matter what culture one is from, human beings appear to show particular emotions in similar facial expressions. Cordelia Molloy/Science Source When we think about emotions, they seem to fall into one of two categories: positive emotions and negative emotions. Positive emotions make us feel better, and they tend to draw us toward the eliciting stimulus. In contrast, negative emotions are accompanied by feelings of anxiety, depression, or hostility, and they tend to make us avoid the eliciting stimulus. Emotions organize wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 329 7/10/13 12:38 PM Section 11.1 Emotion CHAPTER 11 our behavior in such a way as to motivate us to approach pleasant stimuli (as in the case of positive emotions) or avoid unpleasant or noxious stimuli (as in the case of negative emotions).Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking Thus, emotions are important for our survival. In general, emotions such as happiness, love, and euphoria are considered positive emotions. Anger, hatred, disgust, and fear are considered negative emotions. These negative emotions have also been called emotions of self-preservation because they function to produce defensive responses by an individual to an arousing stimulus. For example, when I picked up what I thought was a dead snake from my driveway one day, the snake’s tail began to move. In response, I reflexively dropped the snake and ran down the driveway away from the snake. Thus, I displayed self-preservation as I dashed away from the snake that was still very much alive. In 1927 Walter Cannon referred to these negative emotional reactions as fight-or-flight responses. Emotions of self-preservation produce either fight behavior, in which an individual strikes out at a threatening stimulus in an attempt to eliminate it, or flight behavior, in which the individual runs from the emotion-inducing stimulus (as I did from the snake). Both positive and negative emotions are associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Whether you are in love or so angry that you could scream, your body has the same reaction: dilation of the pupils, increased heart rate and sweating, cessation of peristalsis in the gut. Investigators who study emotions do not agree as to whether each emotion produces a specific pattern of physiological responses (Ekman, 1992; Ortony & Turner, 1990). Later in this chapter, we will discuss how activation of the sympathetic nervous system occurs. Before we get to that discussion, I want you to consider how emotions are generated and experienced. A number of investigators have proposed theories to explain how emotions arise. Let’s examine the best known of these theories. James-Lange Theory William James and Carl Lange published separate papers at about the same time—James in the United States and Lange in Europe—that detailed the same explanation of emotion (James, 1890; Lange & James, 1922). Today we call that explanation the James-Lange theory of emotion, in honor of the two psychologists who proposed it. According to the James-Lange theory, a stimulus produces a physiological response, and the physiological response produces an emotion (Figure 11.2). The classic example goes like this: You are walking in the woods and meet a bear. Seeing the bear makes your heart pound, and you run away. Running away with a pounding heart causes you to feel afraid. That is, according to the James-Lange theory of emotion, you feel afraid after you experience the physiological responses produced by the sympathetic and somatic nervous systems. wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 330 7/10/13 12:38 PM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.1 Emotion Figure 11.2: Major theories of emotion According to these major theories, a stimulus creates an emotional reaction that is then represented in a physical response. James-Lange Theory: See bear Run away, heart pounding Experience emotion (fear) Experience emotion (fear) Run away, heart pounding Cannon-Bard Theory: See bear Schachter-Singer Theory: See bear Cognitive appraisal of event. “This is a bear. Bears are scary.” Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking Experience emotion (fear) Run away, heart pounding wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 331 Cognitive appraisal of bodily response. “My heart is pounding. I’m running away like crazy.” 7/10/13 12:38 PM Section 11.1 Emotion CHAPTER 11 Cannon-Bard Theory You may recall Walter Cannon’s name from Chapter 9, when we examined stomach contractions and the initiation of eating. (Cannon was the psychologist who had his grad student swallow the balloon that was inflated in the stomach.) Cannon is also well known for his theory on emotion. In 1927 Walter Cannon and his student, Phil Bard, wrote a paper that refuted the James-Lange theory of emotion and proposed an alternative theory, known as the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (Cannon, 1927). According to the Cannon-Bard theory, a stimulus causes an emotion, which then produces physiological changes. That is, the Cannon-Bard theory maintains that a stimulus is directly followed by an emotional reaction, which then elicits a bodily response (Figure 11.2). For example, if you meet a bear in the woods, you feel fear (an emotion) and run away. According to the Cannon-Bard theory, you run away because you feel afraid. Schachter-Singer Theory At Columbia University, Stanley Schachter and his student, Jerome Singer, designed an ingenious experiment to test whether the James-Lange or the Cannon-Bard theory is correct (Schachter & Singer, 1962). In their experiment, they had three groups of male participants, who were told that the study involved testing the effects of vitamin A on vision. The first group was administered an injection of epinephrine but was uninformed about its effect (Epi-Uninformed group). The participants in this group were told that they had been injected with vitamin A but that it would have no side effects. Recall from Chapter 3 that epinephrine is a powerful stimulant of the sympathetic nervous system. The second group also received epinephrine but was told that the “vitamin A” injection would cause them to feel shaky and excited (Epi-Informed group). The third group received an injection of saline (salt water) and was told that the vitamin A shot would have no side effects (Placebo group). Thus, the Epi-Uninformed group experienced physiological arousal but had no explanation for that arousal, the Epi-Informed group experienced physiological arousal and knew that the injection produced that arousal, and the Placebo group experienced no physiological arousal. Following the injection, each participant was placed individually in a room where a confederate was completing a survey. (A confederate is a person who is paid to act like a participant in the study.) The participant was asked to complete the same survey while he waited for the “vitamin A” to be absorbed into his bloodstream. As the participant completed the survey, the confederate began to act either euphoric or angry. In the euphoria condition, the confederate began laughing at the questions on the survey and folded the pages into paper airplanes, which he sailed across the room. In the anger condition, the confederate became wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 332 iStockphoto/Thinkstock Photo 11.1 The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion predicts that smiling will occur before the experience of happiness but that happiness will be experienced only if the smiling person can attribute the smile to some appropriate stimulus. 7/11/13 1:25 PM Section 11.1 Emotion CHAPTER 11 angry over the questions in the survey and wadded each page into a ball, which he angrily threw across the room. Schachter and Singer were interested in observing how the participants reacted when the confederate began to display emotion. Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking As Schachter and Singer predicted, the participants in the Epi-Uninformed group displayed emotional behavior when exposed to a confederate who was displaying emotional behavior. For example, those in the euphoria condition were observed to laugh and make airplanes with the confederate, whereas those in the anger condition tore up their surveys in anger. These participants in the Epi-Uninformed group experienced physiological arousal due to the injection of epinephrine, but they attributed this arousal to an emotional state, euphoria or anger, depending on the behavior of the confederate. On the other hand, subjects in the Epi-Informed and Placebo groups did not display emotional behavior. Those participants in the Epi-Informed group experienced physiological arousal, but they attributed that arousal to the drug that was injected because they were informed of the true effects of the drug. Those in the Placebo group did not display emotional behavior because they did not experience physiological arousal. Thus, according to the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion, in order to experience an emotion, an individual needs to experience physiological arousal and has to attribute the physiological arousal to an appropriate stimulus (Figure 11.2). Vascular Theory of Emotion A more recent theory of emotion was described by Zajonc, Murphy, and Inglehart in 1989. As its name implies (vascular refers to blood vessels), the vascular theory of emotion is based on changes in blood flow through particular blood vessels in the face. Facial blood vessels drain into the cavernous sinus, a large venous pool of blood that collects at the base of the skull before being carried back to the heart (Figure 11.3). The cavernous sinus is central to the vascular theory of emotion because blood draining from the superficial layers of the face is cooler than core body temperature and thus cools the brain. A number of studies conducted by Zajonc and others have demonstrated that increasing the temperature of the brain (just a few tenths of a degree) produces negative emotions like anger and sadness, whereas cooling the brain produces feelings of happiness (Zajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart, 1989). These minute changes in brain temperature are believed to alter the activity of enzymes and neurotransmitters in the brain, which could affect the experience of emotion. wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 333 7/10/13 12:38 PM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.1 Emotion Figure 11.3: Vascular theory of emotion Figure A labels the many parts that are involved in emotional expression. Figure B illustrates the physical reactions to positive emotions and what leads to smiling. Figure C illustrates the physical reactions to negative emotions and what leads to frowning and crying. B. Cool blood from the superficial layer of the face (skin, muscle) drains into cavernous sinus, cooling the brain. A. Frontopolar branch Anterior cerebral artery Cavernous sinus Veins that drain blood from the face to the cavernous sinus C. Cool blood pools in the face and does not drain into cavernous sinus, warming the brain. Internal carotid artery External jugular vein According to the vascular theory of emotion, muscular contractions that produce smiling cause blood to drain rapidly from the face into the cavernous sinus, which lowers the temperature of the brain, producing a positive emotion (Figure 11.3). For example, when human participants hold a pencil in their teeth, blood drains out of the face into the cavernous sinus, and after several minutes, a feeling of happiness or well-being is induced (McIntosh, Zajonc, Vig, & Emerick, 1997). Hold a pencil in your mouth behind your canine teeth and look at yourself in the mirror.Discussion: Schizophrenia and Smoking You will appear to be smiling. Thus, smiling causes blood to drain from your face into the cavernous sinus, cooling your brain and producing a positive emotion. In contrast, when participants hold a pencil with their lips only, producing a frown, their mood declines, and they report feeling sad or unhappy (Figure 11.3). Muscle contractions that produce a frown cause blood to pool in the face, rather than drain into the brain, which increases the temperature of the brain. wiL81028_11_c11_327-360.indd 334 7/10/13 12:38 PM Section 11.2 Emotional Pathways in the Central Nervous System CHAPTER 11 The vascular theory of emotion may explain why facial expression of emotions appears to be universal across all cultures. Because smiling causes blood to drain from the face and frowning causes blood to pool in the face, these facial expressions are directly implicated in the control of brain temperature. However, it is unclear whether smiling occurs before or after the experience of a happy emotion in a natural setting, as when someone gives you an unexpected gift. In the laboratory, Zajonc proposed that smiling precedes the experience of the emotion because smiling lowers the temperature of the brain and, consequently, stimulates those areas of the brain that cause us to feel a positive emotion (McIntosh et al., 1997, Zajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart, 1989). The James-Lange theory would also predict that smiling (the physiological response) precedes the experience of happiness. The Cannon-Bard theory requires that happiness (the emotion) be felt first, followed by smiling. In contrast, the Schachter-Singer theory predicts that smiling will occur before the experience of happiness but that happiness will be experienced only if the smiling person can attribute the smile to some appropriate stimulus. That is, if the individual could not explain why he or she were smiling, or if the individual were to reason, “I’m not really smiling, I’m holding a pencil in my teeth,” the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion would lead us to predict that happiness would not be experienced. Thus, each theory of emotion that we have examined in this section would lead us to a different interpretation of smiling behavior. 11.2 Emotional Pathways in the Central Nervous System T he theories presented in the previous section all emphasize physiological factors that produce emotions. These physiological factors are associated with activation of certain regions of the central and peripheral nervous syste … Get a 10 % discount on an order above $ 100 Use the following coupon code : NURSING10