Why Exercise Behavior and Adherence Are Important

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Why Exercise Behavior and Adherence Are Important

CHAPTER 19 Exercise Behavior and Adherence Why Exercise Behavior and Adherence Are Important • More than half of adults do not meet the minimum requirement of 150 minutes of moderate exercise per week. • The prevalence of obesity by race is as follows: NonHispanic Asian (11.7%), non-Hispanic white (34.5%), Hispanic (42.5%), and non-Hispanic-black (48.1%). • Approximately 1 in 5 (21%) adults meet the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines. • Fewer than 3 in 10 high school students get at least 60 minutes of physical activity every day. (continued) Reasons to Exercise • Weight control (counter obesity epidemic) • Reduced risk of cardiovascular disease • Reduction in stress and depression • Enjoyment • Building self-esteem • Socializing (continued) • Keys Reasons to Exercise (continued) • Exercise combined with proper eating habits can help people lose weight. • Weight loss should be slow and steady. • Both the physiological and psychological benefits of exercise can be cited to persuade sedentary people to initiate exercise. • Maintenance and initiation of physical activity are critical. Reasons for Not Exercising • Perceived lack of time • Lack of energy • Lack of motivation • Sedentary behavior (continued) Figure 19.1 Barriers to Physical Activity • Health issues: Physical limitations, injury, poor health, pain and soreness, psychological problems • Inconvenience: Lack of access to facilities, crowded facilities, lack of transportation, other commitments • Lack of motivation and energy: Feeling lazy or unmotivated, too much effort • Lack of social support: No exercise partner, lacking support from spouse • Lack of time and money Figure 19.3 Why People Have a Problem With Exercise Adherence • The prescriptions are often based solely on fitness data, ignoring people’s psychological readiness to exercise. • Most exercise prescriptions are overly restrictive and are not optimal for enhancing motivation for regular exercise. • Rigid exercise prescriptions based on principles of intensity, duration, and frequency are too challenging for many people, especially beginners. • Traditional exercise prescription does not promote selfresponsibility or empower people to make long-term behavior change. Preventing a Relapse • Expect and plan for lapses (e.g., schedule alternative activities while on vacation). • Develop coping strategies (e.g., relaxation training, time management, imagery) for dealing with high-risk situations such as going on vacation or getting sick. • Replace “shoulds” with “wants” to provide more balance in your life. “Shoulds” put pressure and expectations on you. Preventing a Relapse (continued) • Use positive self-talk and imagery to avoid self-dialogues focusing on relapse. • Identify situations that put you at risk and attempt to avoid or plan for these settings. • Do not view a temporary relapse as catastrophic because this undermines confidence and willpower. Theories and Models of Exercise Behavior • Health belief model • Theory of planned behavior • Social cognitive theory • Self-determination theory • Transtheoretical model • Ecological model • Physical activity maintenance model Transtheoretical Model A person progresses through six stages of change: 1. Precontemplation: Does not exercise 2. Contemplation: Has fleeting thoughts of exercising 3. Preparation: Exercises, but not regularly enough (continued) Transtheoretical Model (continued) 4. Action: Has been exercising regularly, but for less than six months 5. Maintenance: Has been exercising regularly for more than six months 6. Termination: Exercisers have exercised for five years (continued) Figure 19.4 Physical Activity Maintenance Model Key aspects to predicting the maintenance of physical activity: • Goal setting: Commitment attainment, satisfaction • Self-motivation: Persistence in the pursuit of behavioral goals independent of any situational constraints • Self-efficacy: Confidence to overcome barriers and avoid relapse • Physical activity environment: Access, attractiveness, enjoyable scenery, social support • Life stress: Recent life changes, everyday hassles Personal Factors • Demographic variables • Cognitive and personality variables • Behaviors Demographic variable example: Blue-collar workers typically have lower exercise adherence rates than white-collar workers. However, increased choices can increase their adherence rates. (continued) Personal Factors (continued) Cognitive and personality examples • Self-efficacy and self-motivation have been consistently related to physical activity adherence. • Beliefs about and expectations of benefits from exercise are associated with increased physical activity levels and adherence to structured physical activity programs among adults. (continued) Personal Factors (continued) Behaviors example: Early involvement in sport and physical activity should be encouraged because a positive relationship exists between childhood exercise and adult physical activity patterns. Environmental Factors • Social environment • Spousal support is critical to enhancing adherence rates for people in exercise programs. • Spouses should be involved in orientation sessions or in parallel exercise programs. • Physical environment • Access to facilities, local crime, distance from home to school (continued) Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise Six categories of techniques: 1. Behavior modification approaches 2. Reinforcement approaches 3. Cognitive–behavioral approaches 4. Decision-making approaches 5. Social-support approaches 6. Intrinsic approaches Motivational Interviewing • An intervention to increase the likelihood of a client’s considering, initiating, and maintaining specific strategies to reduce harmful behavior via an interview. • Motivation to change is elicited from the client rather than the counselor. • Client–counselor relationship is more of a partnership. Activity 19.4: Motivational Interviewing Guidelines for Improving Exercise Adherence • Match the intervention to the participant’s stage of change. • Provide cues for exercises (signs, posters, cartoons). • Make the exercise enjoyable. • Tailor the intensity, duration, and frequency of the exercises. • Promote exercising with a group or friend. • Have participants sign a contract or statement of intent to comply with the exercise program. • Offer a choice of activities. (continued) Guidelines for Improving Exercise Adherence (continued) • Provide rewards for attendance and participation. • Give individualized feedback. • Find a convenient place for exercising. • Have participants reward themselves for achieving certain goals. • Encourage goals to be self-set, flexible, and time-based (rather than distance-based). • Remind participants to focus on environmental cues (not bodily cues) when exercising. (continued) Guidelines for Improving Exercise Adherence (continued) • Use small-group discussions. • Have participants complete a decision balance sheet before starting the exercise program. • Obtain social support from the participant’s spouse, family members, and peers. • Suggest keeping daily exercise logs. • Practice time management skills. • Help participants choose purposeful physical activity. CHAPTER 14 Imagery What Is Imagery? • Equivalent terms are visualization, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice, and mental practice. • Imagery involves creating or recreating an experience in your mind. • Imagery involves all the senses: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, tactile, and olfactory. (continued) What Is Imagery? (continued) • Imagery is a form of simulation that involves recalling from memory pieces of information stored from experience and shaping those pieces into meaningful images. • The kinesthetic sense is particularly important for athletes. • Imagery involves moods and emotions. Five Characteristics of the Imagery Process 1. Modality: the senses used in imagery—auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, and kinesthetic 2. Perspective: first person (internal) or third person (external) 3. Angle: the viewing angle 4. Agency: the author or agent of the behavior being imagined—one’s self or another person 5. Deliberation: the degree to which imagery is deliberate or spontaneous (i.e., triggered) Video 14.1: Using Imagery Effectively Uses of Imagery • Improve concentration. • Enhance motivation. • Build confidence. • Control emotional responses. • Acquire, practice, and correct sport skills. • Acquire and practice strategy. • Prepare for competition. • Cope with pain and adversity. • Solve problems. Evidence of Imagery’s Effectiveness • Anecdotal reports: golf great Jack Nicklaus, Olympic skier Mikaela Shiffrin, former Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson, Olympic athletes, and coaches • Research evidence from: • Case studies • Multiple-baseline case studies • Psychological intervention packages • Scientific experiments (continued) Evidence of Imagery’s Effectiveness (continued) • Psychological intervention studies show that imagery combined with other psychological strategies enhances performance and other psychological variables such as confidence and coping. • Scientific experiments: Studies demonstrate the value of imagery in learning and performing motor skills. Video 14.2: Developing and Using Imagery Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What • Where do athletes use imagery? Athletes employ imagery more in competition than in training and to enhance performance. • When do athletes use imagery? Athletes use imagery before, during, and after practice; outside of practice; before, during, or after competition; and for injury rehabilitation. (continued) Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What (continued) • Why do athletes use imagery? • For motivational and cognitive functions • Functions of imagery: motivational • Motivational general mastery • Motivational general arousal • Functions of imagery: cognitive • Cognitive specific • Cognitive general (continued) Figure 14.1 Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What (continued) • What do athletes image? • Aspects: surroundings • The nature of imagery: the positive or negative character of images, the senses involved • Type of imagery: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, and olfactory • Imagery perspective: internal versus external • Internal perspective is visualizing the execution of a skill from your own vantage point (as if you had a camera on your head). • External perspective is visualizing yourself from the perspective of an outside observer (as if you were watching yourself in a movie). (continued) Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What (continued) • What do athletes image? • Imagery perspective: internal vs. external • Internal imagery appears to make it easier to bring in the kinesthetic sense, feel the movement, and approximate actual performance skills. • However, when using an internal perspective, kinesthetic imagery should be an added component to maximize imagery effectiveness. • No one imagery perspective is best to use at all times. • Whether a person uses an internal or external image appears to be less important than choosing a comfortable style that produces clear, controllable images. Factors in the Effectiveness of Imagery • Nature of the task: Imagery affects performance of most cognitive tasks such as decision making and perception. • Skill level of the performer: Imagery helps performance for both novice and experienced performers; effects are somewhat stronger for experienced performers. • Imaging ability: Imagery is more effective when individuals are higher in their ability to imagine (have better vividness and control). (continued) Factors in the Effectiveness of Imagery (continued) • Using imagery with physical practice: Imagery should be used in addition to (not instead of) physical practice. • Personality: Certain personality characteristics may be linked with effective imagery (e.g., narcissism). How Imagery Works: Five Theories • Psychoneuromuscular theory • Symbolic learning theory • Bioinformational theory • Triple code model • Psychological explanations Psychoneuromuscular Theory • Imagery programs muscles for action. • Imagery facilitates the learning of motor skills because imagined events innervate the muscles as physical practice of the movement does; they strengthen neural pathways. Symbolic Learning Theory • Imagery helps us understand movement patterns. • Imagery functions as a coding system (as mental blueprints) to help people understand and acquire movement patterns. Bioinformational Theory • Images are made of stimulus and response propositions. • It is critical to imagine not only stimulus propositions (statements that describe the scenario to be imagined) but also response propositions (imaginer’s response to the scenario). Triple Code Model • Imagery comprises the image, somatic response, and meaning of the image. • Primary importance is placed on the psychophysiology of imagery and understanding the imagery parts: the image, the somatic response, and the meaning of the image. Psychological Explanations • Imagery develops mental skills. • Imagery develops and refines mental skills (e.g., concentration and confidence) and reduces anxiety. • Attention–arousal set theory: Imagery functions as a predatory set that assists in reaching optimal arousal. • Psychological skills hypothesis: Imagery enhances feelings of confidence, reduces anxiety levels, and increases concentration. Video 14.3: Keys to Effectively Using Imagery Keys to Effective Imagery • Vividness: Use all the senses to make images as vivid and detailed as possible. • Exercise • Imagine being at home. • Imagine a positive performance of skills. • Imagine a positive/best performance • Key point: When using imagery, involve as many senses as possible and recreate or create the emotions associated with the task or skill you’re trying to execute. (continued) Keys to Effective Imagery (continued) • Controllability: Learn to manipulate your images so they do what you want them to do. • Exercise • Imagine controlling a performance. • Imagine controlling a performance against a tough opponent. • Imagine controlling your emotions. • Key point: It is important to develop the skill to control one’s images. Uses of Imagery in Exercise Settings • Exercise technique: imagery to help develop perfect exercise technique • Aerobics routines: imagery to help develop routines • Exercise context: imagery to create a particular scene or environment • Appearance images: imagine your body as you would like it to be (continued) Uses of Imagery in Exercise Settings (continued) • Competitive outcomes: images of doing well • Fitness and health outcomes: images related to improvements in fitness and health • Emotions and feelings associated with imagery: images that increase arousal and excitement or reductions in stress • Exercise self-efficacy: images that provide confidence to sustain workouts Imagery Training Program (ITP) • To be effective, imagery should become part of a person’s daily routine. • Imagery programs should be tailored to the needs, abilities, and interests of each athlete or exerciser. • Imagery can be made more effective by following the PETTLEP program guidelines, which identifies six groups of factors that should be considered in developing an ITP. PETTLEP Model of Imagery • Physical nature of the movement • Specifics of the environment • Task type • Timing of the movement • Learning the content of the movement • Emotion (meaning to the individual) • Perspective (internal versus external) Imagery Training Program (ITP): Evaluate Imagery Skill Level • Individuals differ in how well they can image, so it is important to assess their initial imagery ability. • Imagery measures • The Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised • Sport Imagery Questionnaire • Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire Developing an Imagery Training Program • Practice in many settings. • Aim for relaxed concentration. • Set realistic expectations and sufficient motivation. • Use vivid and controllable images. • Apply imagery to specific situations. • Maintain positive focus. • Consider use of video and audio recordings. • Include execution and outcomes. • Use good timing of imagery. Developing Imagery Scripts 5 Ws to consider when planning an imagery script: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Who: Age, sport, competitive level Where: Training and competition environment When: Before, during, or after competition or training Why: The goal of the imagery What: The content of the image Activity 14.3: Using Imagery to Improve Volleyball Serve Performance Frequency, Duration, and Intensity of Imagery Training • Participate in three to four sessions per week. • Sessions should last about 15 minutes but could go up to 30 minutes. • The number of repetitions will vary with the length of the sport skill, and several repetitions should be involved in every imagery session. (continued) Frequency, Duration, and Intensity of Imagery Training (continued) • If concentration wanes, break imagery sessions into shorter time blocks. • Imagery training should be systematic and considered a regular part of mental preparation for competition and practice. When to Use Imagery • Before and after practice • Before and after competition • During the off-season • During breaks in action (in practice and competition) • During personal time • When recovering from injury Recommendations for Imagery Use • Athletes of all ages can benefit from imagery training. • Encourage less skilled athletes to use imagery. • Images should be positive rather than negative. • Encourage athletes to use imagery during the times it is used less often (e.g., off-season, during practices). • Make sure athletes are in a good mood when using imagery. (continued) Recommendations for Imagery Use (continued) • The speed of imagery depends on the situation. • When learning or refining a skill, use slow-motion. • When concerned with tempo or relative timing, use real-time. • Fast-motion imagery can energize athletes and exercisers and improve focus. • Use as may senses as relevant when practicing imagery. • Practice imagery regularly (at least a few times per week) over several months. (continued) Recommendations for Imagery Use (continued) • Tailor imagery programs to an athlete’s individual needs, abilities, and interests. • The first step in developing an imagery program is evaluating the athlete’s imagery skills. • Imagery must be individualized and practiced. Hence, it should be built into an athlete’s daily routine. CHAPTER 15 Self-Confidence Defining Self-Confidence • Self-confidence is the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior. • Self-confidence was originally viewed as both a disposition and a state. • More recent thinking views sport self-confidence as a social cognitive construct that can be more trait-like or more state-like, depending on the temporal frame of reference used. (continued) Defining Self-Confidence (continued) • Trait self-confidence is the degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succeed. • State self-confidence is the belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed. • Self-fulfilling prophecy: Expecting something to happen actually helps cause it to happen. • Negative self-fulfilling prophecy: This is a psychological barrier whereby the expectation of failure leads to actual failure. Aspects of Self-Confidence in Sport • Vealey and Knight (2002): Confidence about one’s ability to • execute physical skills, • use psychological skills, • employ perceptual skills (e.g., make good decisions), • be fit and highly trained, and • improve one’s skill (learn). (continued) Robust Self-Confidence Characteristics • Multidimensional • Malleable • Durable • Developed • Protective • Strong set of beliefs Benefits of Self-Confidence • Arouses positive emotions • Facilitates concentration • Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging goals • Increases effort • Affects game strategies (play to win versus play to lose) • Affects psychological momentum • Affects performance Levels of Confidence • Optimal confidence involves being so convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so. • Lack of confidence (self-doubt) creates anxiety, breaks concentration, and causes indecisiveness. • Overconfidence (false confidence) causes you to prepare less than you need to in order to perform. Figure 15.1 Skewed Inverted U Confidence-Performance Relationship • People strive for an individual, optimal confidence level but sometimes become either overconfident or underconfident. • Each person has an optimal level of self-confidence, and performance problems can arise with either too little or too much confidence. Figure 15.2 Key Components of the Model of Sport Confidence • Factors influencing sport confidence: It is hypothesized that organizational culture as well as demographic and personality characteristics influence sport confidence. • Sources of sport confidence: Achievement, self-regulation, and social climate factors. • Constructs of sport confidence: Sport confidence varies on a continuum from more trait-like to more state-like, as opposed to either purely trait or state self-confidence. • Consequences of sport confidence: These consequences refer to athletes’ affect (A), behavior (B), and cognitions (C). How Expectations Influence Performance • Expectations play a critical role in the behavior change process. Positive expectations of success produce positive effects in many fields, including sport. • Self-expectations and performance: The expectation of beating a tough opponent or successfully performing a difficult skill can produce exceptional performance as psychological barriers are overcome. (continued) How Expectations Influence Performance (continued) • Coaches’ and teachers’ expectations are very important. • A teacher’s or coach’s expectations can alter a student’s or athlete’s feelings and performance. • The expectation-and-performance process occurs in four stages. Self-Efficacy Theory • Self-efficacy is the perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully. • It is a situation-specific form of self-confidence. Specific Types of Self-Efficacy • Self-regulatory efficacy: Focuses more on one’s abilities to overcome obstacles or challenges to successful performance • Learning efficacy: Individuals’ beliefs in their capability to learn a new skill • Decision-making efficacy: Individuals’ beliefs that they are competent decision makers • Coping efficacy: Individuals’ beliefs in their ability to cope in the face of perceived threats (continued) Specific Types of Self-Efficacy (continued) • Self-presentational efficacy: Individuals’ beliefs in conveying a desired impression to others (e.g., appearing strong, coordinated, fit, or physically attractive) • Other efficacy: Individuals’ beliefs in the ability of others (e.g., partner, teammates, coach) Figure 15.3 Sources of Efficacy • Performance accomplishments • Accomplishments are the most dependable source. • Successful experiences raise the level of self-efficacy, while failure results in lowered efficacy. • Vicarious experiences (modeling): Seeing others or modeling influences efficacy • Verbal persuasion from oneself and others (coaches, teachers, peers) can enhance feelings of self-efficacy. Sources of Efficacy (continued) • In imaginal experiences, individuals can generate beliefs about personal efficacy or lack of efficacy by imagining themselves or others behaving effectively or ineffectively in future situations. • Physiological states influence self-efficacy when they are associated with aversive physiological arousal, poor performance, and perceived failure. • Emotional states, or moods, are a source of efficacy information. Reciprocal Relationship Between Efficacy and Behavior Change • Self-efficacy is a determinant of performance and exercise behavior. • Performance and exercise behavior determine one’s selfefficacy. Four-Stage Modeling Process • Attention: Careful attention must be given to the model or person observed. • Retention: For modeling to occur, the observers must commit the observed acts to memory. • Motor reproduction: For modeling of physical skills to occur, the performers must be able to coordinate their muscle activity with their thoughts. • Motivation: For modeling to occur, the observers must be motivated to attend to, retain, and practice modeled acts. This stage affects all other stages. Modeling • Modeling (also called observational learning) can influence confidence, leading to enhanced performance, depending on the following factors: • Model similarity • Coach models • Mastery versus coping modeling • Self-modeling • Multidimensional modeling • Virtual models Building Self-Confidence • Focus on performance accomplishments • Successful behavior increases confidence and leads to further successful behavior. • Include good physical, technical, and tactical instructions. • Use game-pressure simulations. Note: Performance accomplishments are the most powerful way to build confidence. Manipulate or create situations that allow participants to succeed and have a sense of accomplishments. (continued) Building Self-Confidence (continued) • Act confidently • Instructors and coaches should display confidence. • Teach athletes to display confidence. • Respond with confidence • Athletes should focus on responding with control and confidence, as opposed to reacting with emotion or unproductive behaviors. • Think confidently • Focus on instruction and motivating thoughts. • Avoid judgmental thoughts. • Focus on remembering good performances, not poor ones. (continued) Building Self-Confidence (continued) • Use imagery: Imagine yourself as confident and successful. • Goal mapping: Have personalized goal achievement plans. • Optimize physical conditioning: Training and physical states are keys to confidence. (continued) Building Self-Confidence (continued) • Prepare: Develop performance plans and precompetitive routines; plans give you confidence because you know what to do. • Foster social climate: Leadership style, types of goals, social support network, and social feedback influence confidence. Dos and Don’ts for Building Self-Confidence • Do maintain a high positive precompetitive environment. • Do have high expectations of all your participants. • Do set realistic but challenging short- and long-term goals. • Do provide lots of contingent, positive feedback and praise. • Do structure the environment to provide for early success. • Do try to find participants doing something right (don’t just look for their mistakes). (continued) Dos and Don’ts for Building Self-Confidence (continued) • Don’t use sarcasm and put-downs to motivate people. • Don’t allow teammates or group members to belittle other team or group members. • Don’t criticize participants for inconsequential errors. • Don’t embarrass or criticize participants at the first sign of a mistake. • Don’t criticize the person; criticize the behavior. CHAPTER 8 Diversity and Inclusion Why Diversity and Inclusion Are Important in Sport and Exercise Contexts • Advances in technology have caused individuals from all parts of the world and backgrounds to be more interconnected. • Societies are more diverse than ever before (e.g., the United States is 63% white, 18% Hispanic, 13% African American, 5% Asian, and 3% multiracial). • Sports are more diverse than ever before. • Sport and physical activity settings are not free from bias and anti-inclusive practices. (continued) Why Diversity and Inclusion Are Important in Sport and Exercise Contexts (continued) • Socioeconomic status plays an important role in physical activity participation; the percentage of American adults who meet minimum physical activity guidelines is positively correlated with socioeconomic status. • Inclusion makes sense not only from a moral perspective, but from a performance perspective as well. A Realistic Look at Diversity and Inclusion • While groups of people representing different genders, races, or socioeconomic statuses often differ in their characteristics, there are almost always more differences within a group than between groups. • Discussing diversity issues is often difficult because they are often politically charged. The issues deal with • power and access to resources and influence, or • the lack of power and access to resources and influence. (continued) A Realistic Look at Diversity and Inclusion (continued) • There is a need to balance respect for others’ views with advocacy for social change. • Becoming aware of our biases (especially implicit biases) is an important step in becoming a culturally competent professional. Culture and Cultural Influences • As products of our cultures, we acquire certain values, beliefs, and practices based on where we were raised and live. • We exist in many different cultures (e.g., the college we attend, ethnic or religious background, sport teams we are on). • Our cultural identities make each of us unique. Culture and Cultural Influences (continued) • Culture is more than a listing of characteristics; it involves power and privilege (some groups are advantaged while others are oppressed). • Enculturation: the socialization process in which an individual acquires the skills and qualities needed to be a member of one’s own group • Acculturation: involves attitudinal and behavioral changes associated with living in cultures that differ from one’s own, or when one lives or works in a multicultural society where several cultures exist side by side Defining Culture, Diversity, Inclusion, and Cultural Competence • Diversity is the presence of socially meaningful differences among members of a dyad or group. • Diversity deals with differences or the lack of differences based on such factors as race, national origin, ethnicity, gender, social class, religion, age, and marital status. • Inclusion is the degree that people feel free to express their individuated self and have a sense of connectedness and belonging. (continued) Defining Culture, Diversity, Inclusion, and Cultural Competence (continued) • Cultural competence involves recognizing culturally based differences as well as interacting and working effectively with people from cultures different than your own. It deals with action and advocacy. • Three key components to cultural competence • Cultural awareness • Cultural knowledge • Cultural skills • Cultural competence involves understanding one’s implicit biases or blind spots. Women and Sport Leadership • Despite increases in sport participation by females, women in sport leadership positions have lagged behind (e.g., lack of women coaches for women’s teams and sports administrators). • A lack of women in sport leadership results from macro-level or societal factors (e.g., sport leadership viewed as masculine) and micro-level factors such as low self-efficacy. Figure 8.1 Sexual Prejudice • Some of the most severe incidents of discrimination and prejudice in sport and physical activity puts lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community members at risk. • Prejudice is often based on sexual stereotypes about gays and lesbians. (continued) Sexual Prejudice (continued) • How to combat sexual prejudice • Develop policies that make it clear that discrimination will not be tolerated. Also address how complaints are managed and what disciplinary action will result for policy violations. • Provide educational training that addresses topics such as heterosexism, homonegativism, and transgender prejudice. • Break the silence relative to the use of sexist language. Eliminate both blatant and more subtle sexist language. Disabilities • People with disabilities experience vast physical, psychological, and social benefits from participating in sport and exercise. • Special Olympics participation not only positively influences the athletes involved but also their families. • Benefits of disability sport and physical activity include increased perceptions of competence, enhanced selfefficacy, and improved self-esteem. Figure 8.2 Paralympic Athletes • The psychological needs, motives, characteristics, and mental approaches taken by elite athletes with disabilities are psychologically more similar to than different from those of their counterparts without disabilities. • Paralympians and other elite athletes with disabilities should be recognized for their capabilities rather than for their limitations! Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorders • Acute and chronic physical activity shows benefits such as greater attentiveness and sustained attention, decreased impulsivity, decreased moodiness, decreased stereotypical mannerisms such as jerking or forward and backward rocking, and improved classroom behaviors for DHD/ASD participants. • Physical activity might play an important role in helping youth with ADHD and ASD better function both cognitively and socially. Strategies for Working With People With Disabilities • Make sport more inclusive and open for people with intellectual and physical disabilities; physical activity programs have been shown to result in a variety of psychological benefits. • Increase public awareness and education on the importance of sport and physical activity for these participants. • Be aware of potential biases (e.g., people with disabilities will not be interested in participation). • Think creatively to overcome potential barriers that may block people with disabilities from participation. Weight Bias • Sport and exercise professionals often hold the same implicit biases associated with physicality and weight as the general public does. • Stigmatization and negative stereotyping result in obese individuals being less likely to engage in physical activity and more likely to engage in unhealthy eating habits and behaviors. • Professionals must recognize their own biases and focus on the health benefits versus weight outcomes with overweight individuals. Race and Ethnicity • In many ways sport acts as a microcosm of the larger American society when it comes to race relations and ethnicity. • Athletics plays a major role in the African American community. However, the idea that sport is a vehicle for advancement needs to be questioned because the perception that it is does not match the reality of what actually occurs. • Stereotypes significantly influence the motivation and performance of African Americans. (continued) Race and Ethnicity (continued) • While stereotypes of blacks being superior athletically might work favorably for African Americans at times, black athletes are also stereotyped as being less intellectually capable. This has led to research on stereotype threat. • Intergroup conflict, stereotypes, and prejudice may arise between two marginalized groups (e.g., African Americans and Hispanics). Benefits of Diversity and Inclusion • Diversity can have a positive and meaningful effect on performance. • More diversity in groups and teams enhances performance by increasing the number of perspectives being considered, generating a greater number of options for action, and enhancing decision making. • Diversity when combined with proactive diversity strategies results in improved athletic success. (continued) Benefits of Diversity and Inclusion (continued) • While diversity training can facilitate performance, alone it is not enough, nor is implementing such training an easy process. • Top-level program support and organizational commitment is needed. • Consistent proactive strategies need to be systematically and continuously emphasized so that deep organizational structural changes are implemented. Strategies for Diversifying Sport and Physical Activity and Creating Inclusive Environments • Become culturally aware. • Become a culturally competent communicator. • Use strategies to create welcoming environments and culturally competent interventions. Becoming Culturally Aware • Cultural awareness is more than noticing, understanding, and accepting differences in others. It requires considerable “self-awareness.” • Everyone has cultural blind spots or implicit biases, the values, norms, cultural skills, and worldviews shaped by one’s own culture that we take for granted and assume others share. • Often we’re unaware of these cultural blind spots. Culturally Competent Communication and Welcoming Climates • Becoming more self-aware through reflection and talking to others about our own views and practices is key. • Engage in communication practices that are effective for the cultures one works within (e.g., handshake versus bow). • Learn about the cultures you are entering by reading, talking to insiders from that culture, or carefully observing. • Be self- and situationally aware. Promoting Inclusive School Environments • Acknowledge incidents of assault in the school community by communicating care and concern for, and directly to, those involved. • Abstain from questioning the merits of a victim’s claim or dismissing it outright. These actions marginalize the victim and the experience. (continued) Promoting Inclusive School Environments (continued) • Make teaching tolerance a routine part of the instructional decision-making process. • Create space and time for youth to discuss world events; expose youth to evidence of injustice. • Collaborate with school leaders, support staff, and colleagues to create a plan for responding appropriately to trauma at the classroom level. Culturally Competent Interventions • Design interventions and use strategies that allow people of all backgrounds to feel welcomed and included in programs. • A culturally competent professional must value diversity, participate in diversity training, and work hard get to know those with whom he or she works. • Adopt strategies and interventions that align with the setting’s cultural values (e.g., First Nations swim instruction).

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